External factors
The impact of feminism
Feminists argue we have not achieved full equality but the feminist movement has had success in improving women’s rights and opportunities through changes in the law
These changes are reflected in the media
McRobbie's study of girls magazines show that in the 70s they expressed the importance of marriage and not being ‘left on the shelf’ and nowadays they contain images of independent women
The changes encouraged by feminism may affect a girls self-esteem and self-image and therefore this may explain improvements in their educational achievement
Changes in the family
Changes in the family include:
Increase in divorce rate
Increase in cohabitation and decrease in the number of 1st marriages
Increase in Lone Parent Families
Smaller families
THese changes affect attitudes towards education → More women need to take on the breadwinner role which creates a new role model for young girls. To achieve this independence, they will need a well paying job and an education.
Increase in divorce rate also teaches children that they can’t rely on their husbands and encourages girls to look after themselves
Changes in Women’s employment
1970 Equal Pay Act - illegal to pay women less than men for the same job
1975 Sex discrimination Act - outlaws discrimination at work
Since 1975 the pay gap has halved from 30% to 15% (Full tim employees under 40 = close to 0%
Proportion of women in employment has risen 53%- 1971 → 72% -2020
Growth of the service sector and part-time work has benefited women
Some women are breaking through the ‘galss ceiling’ (Loden)
These changes have allowed girls to see a future in paid work, not as housewives = incentive to get educated
Girls changing ambitions
Sharpe - interview with girls in the 1970s and 1990s and saw a major shift in the way girls see their future
1970s = girls had low aspirations and believed the education system was unfeminine, and Having ambitions would be considered ‘unattractive’. Priorities were given to love and husbands and children
1990s = Girls ambitions had changed and they had different priorities. Girls were more likely to see a future as an independent woman with a career
O’Connor - 2006 girls aged 14-17 were less likely to have children and marriage as a main priority
Beck and Beck-Gernsheim linked this to the trend towards individualisation in modern society where independence is valued more.
Fuller - Girls saw educational success was a central part of their identity and saw themselves as creators of their own future. Girls believed in meritocracy
Class,gender and ambition
However, class differences may impact ambition in girls
Some WC girls continue to have gender-stereotyped aspirations for marriage and children
Reay - this reflects girls position in their situation. Limited aspiration has limited job opportunities. Traditional gender roles are more attainable
Biggart - WC girls are more likely to see motherhood as their only option so therefore have less ambition to achieve in school