Coordination in English Grammar
Coordination involves two structures of the same form functioning as a unit, creating compound structures (e.g., compound subject: "Dave and Luis went to the store.").
Coordination relies on conjunctions to connect these structures. Common conjunctions include:
Coordinating conjunctions: and, or, but.
Correlative conjunctions: both/and, not only/but also, either/or, neither/nor.
Generally, avoid using a comma to separate items within a clause linked by a conjunction.
Example: I want to major in either Accounting or Art.
Example: During the winter the tour starts in Queenstown and ends in Corona.
Example: He said that he would get here sooner or later and that I shouldn’t start the rehearsal without him.
Coordination and Comma Usage
Exceptions to the no-comma rule:
To emphasize the second item in a coordinated pair.
Example: I didn’t believe him, and I told him so to his face.
Example: The menu items were highly original, and revolting.
To separate three or more items in a series (using the serial comma or Oxford comma).
Example: She teaches courses in yoga and karate. [two items, no comma]
Example: She teaches courses in yoga, karate, and weightlifting. [three items, commas used]
Elliptical Coordinate Structures and Ambiguity
Elliptical structures omit an element that is still "understood."
Example: The ambassador and [the] embassy staff worked all night.
Ambiguity can arise if the omitted element is not clearly understood, especially with modifiers or determiners.
Example: The new ambassador and embassy staff worked all night. [Was the embassy staff new, or just the ambassador?]
Example: Visitors to this area always admire the flower gardens and the stately elms on campus. [Which structure does on campus modify? Were the flower gardens in “this area” and the elms “on campus”? Or were both on campus?]
Example: Penn State’s administration building, Old Main, is best known for its presidential portraits and [its] murals by Henry Varnum Poor. [Did Poor paint the portraits, too, or just the murals?]
Example: There were six men and women waiting in line. [How many were there in total? Twelve or six?]
Coordination and Subject-Verb Agreement
When subjects are joined by and or both-and, the subject is plural.
Example: The former presidents and their wives were attending the inauguration.
With or, either/or, and neither/nor, the verb agrees with the subject closest to it.
Example: Neither the speaker nor the listeners were intimidated by the protestor.
Example: Either the class officers or the faculty advisor makes the final decision.
If the sentence sounds awkward, try reversing the order.
Example: Either the faculty advisor or the class officers make the final decision.
Coordination and Subject-Verb Agreement (Continued)
Distinguish coordination from nonrestrictive elements using phrases like "as well as" or "in addition to".
Nonrestrictive phrases comment on, but don’t define, the elements they modify, and do not create compound subjects.
Incorrect: One of Edward Hopper’s well-known oil paintings, in addition to a few of his watercolors, are on display.
Correct: One of Edward Hopper’s well-known oil paintings, in addition to a few of his watercolors, is on display.
Incorrect: The Gardner museum, along with many other small museums, have community-partnership programs.
Correct: The Gardner museum, along with many other small museums, has community-partnership programs.
To make the subject compound, use a coordinating conjunction.
Example: One of Edward Hopper’s well-known oil paintings and a few of his watercolors are on display.
Example: The Gardener museum and many other small museums have community-partnership programs.
Parallel Structure
For coherence, coordinate structures should be parallel, meaning all coordinated parts are of the same grammatical form.
Example: The dinner smells delicious and tastes even better.
Example: The entire cast gave powerful and exciting performances.
Unparallel structures often occur with correlative conjunctions.
Example: Either they will fly straight home or stop overnight in Dubuque. [Incorrect]
Revised: I’ll either take a bus or a taxi. [Incorrect]
Exercises: Coordination
Rewrite sentences to improve parallel structure, subject-verb agreement, and coordination.2. The rain pelted our tent and was also soaking the backpacks we had left outside.
The experimental group watched a continuous television program. The control groups in the study either watched no television or they watched commercials.
They neither enjoy flying across the country nor particularly want to take the train.
Either the members of the school board or the superintendent make the final decision.
The recipe was either printed wrong, or you misread it.
I was unhappy with what he said and the way he said it.
The coach announced an extra hour of drill on Saturday and that the practice on Sunday would be canceled.
My history class, as well as both English classes, require a term paper.
His aunt made him promise that he would send her his documentary and to apply to film school.
For the picnic we brought baskets of chicken and lemonade.
Coordinating Independent Clauses: Commas
Connect two independent clauses (complete sentences) with a coordinating conjunction to create a compound sentence.
Example: The curtain rose, and a stillness settled over the audience.
Example: The kids can wait at the pool, or they can go to the shopping center, or they can even walk home.
Example: Jill wanted me to wait for her, but I refused.
Use a comma before the coordinating conjunction when joining two independent clauses.
Coordinating Independent Clauses: Semicolons
Connect closely related independent clauses with a semicolon, without a coordinating conjunction.
Example: The curtain rose; a stillness settled over the audience.
Use a conjunctive adverb after the semicolon, set off with a comma.
Conjunctive adverbs: however, therefore, moreover, nevertheless.
Example: We thought she didn’t have much hope of winning; nevertheless, for two months we rang doorbells.
Example: We worked hard for our preferred candidate; we knew, however, that she didn’t stand a chance.
Only "yet" and "so" can be used with a comma instead of a semicolon to join independent clauses.
Example: Several birds were flying northward, so I knew spring was on the way.
Sentences Beginning with Conjunctions
It is acceptable to begin a sentence with coordinating conjunctions like "yet," "and," or "but."
Coordinating Independent Clauses: Colons
Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a list or explanation.
Meaning: “here it comes, the information I promised.”
Example: I’m taking three courses this semester: Calculus, Shakespeare, and Human Geography.
Connect two independent clauses with a colon when the second clause explains or elaborates on the first.
Example: We finally made our decision: we would sell our house and move.
Example: Easton, Pennsylvania, is a colorful city: it’s where Crayola crayons are made.
Example: Ideas are like children: there are none so wonderful as your own.
Style guides vary on whether to capitalize the first letter after the colon.
Diagramming Compound Sentences
Diagram each independent clause separately.
Connect the clauses with a solid horizontal line containing the coordinating conjunction.
Use dotted lines to connect the conjunction to the predicating verbs of each clause.
Exercise: Compound Sentences
Combine pairs of sentences into compound sentences using commas with coordinating conjunctions, semicolons with conjunctive adverbs, or semicolons/colons alone.
Example Pair: The library closes at 5:00 PM on Sundays. It is open until 9:00 PM on Saturdays.
Example Pair: The food at the new French restaurant is excellent. The prices are exceptionally high.
Example Pair: I am going to take piano lessons this fall. I may take guitar lessons, too.
Example Pair: My first-period students are bright. They are wide awake at 8:00 AM, too.
Example Pair: Our trip across Kansas was long and straight and uneventful. The trip across Kansas took an entire day.
Transform the compound sentences into compound-complex sentences by adding a dependent clause (nominal, adverbial, or adjectival) to each one