Miller History Notes
Westward Expansion
Defining the West
The definition of the West has evolved over time.
"Old West" refers to the colonial period.
The Northwest corresponds to the present-day Midwest.
Geographically, the West is defined as the area west of the Missouri River.
The Myth of "Discovery"
Indigenous peoples inhabited the land long before European explorers arrived.
A diverse array of cultures thrived in North America, speaking nearly 20 different languages and representing dozens of tribes.
The Northwest Ordinance
Enacted in 1787, it facilitated future expansion of the United States.
The ordinance promised property rights for Native Americans but resulted in settlers occupying Native lands.
Established government control over the Northwestern Territory.
The Louisiana Purchase and Lewis & Clark
In 1803, the U.S. acquired Louisiana Territory from France for $15 million.
The Lewis and Clark expedition (1803–1805) sought to explore and map the new territory, aided by Native Americans like Sacagawea.
Results of the Lewis & Clark Expedition
Failed to find a northwest passage to the Pacific.
Collected valuable geographic and scientific information.
Helped lay the foundation for U.S. claims to the Oregon Country, generating further interest in expansion.
Other Expeditions
Zebulon Pike explored the Southwestern U.S. while detained by Spanish authorities.
Exploration by fur traders contributed to the mapping of western territories.
“Mountain Men”
Refers to Western fur traders who came from diverse backgrounds.
Most worked for fur companies but faced decline due to changing fashion trends that diminished the demand for fur.
The Santa Fe Trail
A trade route connecting Independence, Missouri, to Santa Fe.
Served as a significant trade artery and a route for military invasion during the Mexican-American War.
The Oregon Trail
Linked Independence to present-day Oregon.
Became heavily trafficked and dangerous due to conditions and terrain.
Trading stations along the trail contributed to U.S. claims over the Oregon Territory.
The Oregon Trail: Famous Expeditions
Notable expeditions included those led by John C. Fremont and the ill-fated Donner Party.
Transportation: Canals
The Erie Canal connected the Hudson River to Buffalo, facilitating trade and transportation between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean.
Transportation: Railroads
The rise of railroads diminished the importance of canals.
Major railroad construction occurred between the 1830s and 1860s, culminating in the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1869.
“Manifest Destiny”
Coined in 1845, it embodied the belief that it was God’s will for the U.S. to expand to the Pacific Ocean.
This ideology justified the subjugation of Native Americans and the alteration of landscapes.
Indian Removal
Increased pressure on Native American territories led to the Indian Removal Act of 1830.
Resulted in the forced relocation of tribes and the Trail of Tears, marking a tragic chapter in U.S. history.
The Indian Appropriations Act
Passed in 1851 to place tribes on reservations to protect them from white settlement.
The BIA and Assimilation Policies
The Bureau of Indian Affairs managed supplies to reservations.
Boarding schools aimed at assimilating Native American children into Western culture.
Life on the Frontier
Frontier life necessitated all family members participating in daily chores and home-building.
Many settlers built sod houses due to a lack of timber.
Farming on the Frontier
Farming was challenging due to terrain, but innovations like the steel plow (1837) improved efficiency.
Farmers grew crops like corn and wheat and raised livestock, facing risks of disease and injury.
Immigrants on the Frontier
Mostly European immigrants, including Germans and Scandinavians, settled in these territories.
Recruitment efforts were made in Europe to encourage emigration to the U.S.
Women on the Frontier
Women played essential roles in establishing homes and communities alongside their families.
Traditional roles expanded as women took on various responsibilities.
Women’s Suffrage
Wyoming Territory granted women the right to vote in 1869, followed by Utah, Idaho, and Colorado by 1900.
California Under Spanish and Mexican Rule
Spanish missions facilitated settlement, later transitioning under Mexican control.
Ranching became prominent, especially with the arrival of non-Mexican settlers.
The California Gold Rush
Gold discovered at Sutter’s Mill in 1848 attracted hopeful miners known as ’49ers, including diverse groups such as African Americans and Chinese immigrants.
Life During the Gold Rush
Gold mining camps lacked formal law enforcement, leading miners to create their own justice systems in a “Wild West” environment.
The Gold Rush: Outcomes
California achieved statehood in 1850 and experienced rapid transportation improvements but also significant displacement of Native American populations and environmental degradation.
Texas
American settlers in Mexican Texas led to conflicts, such as the Alamo and the Battle of San Jacinto, ultimately resulting in Texas's admission to the U.S. as a state in 1845.
Additional Territorial Acquisitions
Increased exploration led to significant acquisitions of land from Mexico via the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the Gadsden Purchase.
The Question of Slavery in New Territories
The issue of slavery caused deep divisions; residents of Kansas and Nebraska were allowed to decide their status, leading to the violent conflict known as "Bleeding Kansas."
The Homestead Act
Passed in 1862, allowing families to claim 160 acres of land, leading to competitive settling and the displacement of Native Americans.
Oklahoma Land Rushes
Land previously held by Native Americans was opened for settlement in the 1880s and 1890s, with the first land run on April 22, 1889, attracting various groups, including Europeans and former slaves.
New Territories
New territories were organized in the 1860s under federal control, later to become states without local constitutions.
African Americans Migrating From the South
Post-Civil War, many Southern African Americans migrated westward to Kansas, forming communities known as "Exodusters" even amidst economic hardships.
The Pony Express
Established in 1860 to expedite mail delivery across the country, though it lasted only a year before being replaced by the telegraph and railroads.
The Telegraph
Revolutionized communication by transmitting messages electrically; the Pacific Telegraph Act of 1860 facilitated its expansion across the U.S.
The Transcontinental Railroad
This coast-to-coast railroad significantly influenced trade and settlement in the West, built primarily by immigrant labor.
The Transcontinental Railroad: Outcomes
Encouraged westward migration, led to the near extermination of bison, which was detrimental to Native American livelihoods.
Bison
Once abundant, the bison population was decimated by settlers and hunters, which heavily impacted Native Americans who depended on them for sustenance.
Indian Reservations
U.S. policy favored the removal of Native Americans to reservations, alongside efforts to "civilize" their populations through various means.
The Indian Wars
Armed conflicts arose between Native tribes and the U.S. government, leading to events such as the Sand Creek Massacre, Battle of the Little Bighorn, and Wounded Knee Massacre.
The Sand Creek Massacre
Resulted from gold discoveries and the push for expansion, leading to tragic violence against Cheyenne and Arapaho people.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn
Custer’s 7th Cavalry was dramatically defeated in 1876 at this battle against Cheyenne and Lakota tribes, where Custer was killed.
The Wounded Knee Massacre
Occurred in 1890 amid tensions surrounding the Ghost Dance movement and Sitting Bull's arrest, marking the end of the Indian Wars.
“Buffalo Soldiers”
Refers to African American army regiments that served valiantly in the Western campaigns, earning distinctions including medals of honor.
White Attitudes Toward Native Americans
Exhibited a range of views from negative stereotypes to romanticized depictions; attitudes reflected broader societal perceptions.
Cowboys
Included vaqueros and various backgrounds; their work as cattle herders represented a culturally diverse and challenging lifestyle.
Cattle Drives
Cattle were driven to railheads for transport to markets; these drives contributed to the meatpacking industry’s boom, particularly in Chicago.
Romantic Notions of the West
Western themes were popularized in arts and media, generating a mystique around the region's culture and dynamics, exemplified by figures like Buffalo Bill.
Paintings of the West
Artists such as Thomas Moran and Albert Bierstadt helped shape perceptions of the West, influencing conservation and the establishment of national parks.
Turner’s "Frontier Thesis"
Proposed by Frederick Jackson Turner in 1893, highlighting how the frontier experience molded American democracy, optimism, and individuality. The concept signaled the closing of the frontier.