Theodore Roosevelt, American Expansionism, and the Panama Canal
Roosevelt's Expansionist Philosophy (The "Big Stick" Diplomacy)
Theodore Roosevelt, inspired by the West African proverb "Speak softly and carry a big stick, and you will go far," extensively advocated for American expansionism even before his time at the Navy Department.
This policy led to the United States becoming a significant world power, achieving several key annexations and dominations:
Annexation of Hawaii.
Driving Spain from the New World.
Dominating Cuba and Puerto Rico.
Taking the Philippines from Spain.
The acquisition of the Philippines involved a brutal and bloody campaign to subjugate the local populace, who desired freedom from any foreign rule, including American. Tens of thousands died to secure a U.S. foothold in the Pacific.
Anti-Imperialist Criticism
Figures like Mark Twain strongly opposed these military adventures, viewing them as a betrayal of American principles. Twain, an anti-imperialist, stated his opposition to "having the eagle put its talons on any other land" and labeled Roosevelt a "showy charlatan."
Roosevelt, however, largely disregarded such criticism.
Roosevelt's Worldview: Civilized vs. Uncivilized Nations
Roosevelt categorized the world into two types of nations:
Civilized Nations: Characterized by being industrialized and predominantly white.
Uncivilized Nations: Defined as producers of raw materials, buyers of manufactured goods (rather than manufacturers themselves), and, in Roosevelt's belief, incapable of self-government.
He identified "chaos" as the greatest enemy of civilization.
To combat chaos, Roosevelt believed it was the duty of "civilized and orderly powers to police the rest" of the world.
For example, Britain was responsible for India and Egypt.
Japan, which Roosevelt now considered a civilized nation due to its industrial and military power, was tasked with controlling Korea and the Yellow Sea.
Crucially, the United States, and only the United States, was mandated to police the Western Hemisphere.
The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine
This policing role for the U.S. in the Western Hemisphere became known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.
Despite general American discomfort with imperialism, Roosevelt firmly believed in the exercise of power.
Critics noted his "high-handed treatment of the Colombians" during the Panama Treaty negotiations as "inexcusable," highlighting issues in his dealings with foreign nations, especially those he considered inferior.
The Vision for a Central American Canal
Roosevelt's most significant unfulfilled expansionist vision was a Central American canal to link the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
This "interocean pathway" was deemed indispensable for the full exercise of American naval power.
A French company had previously attempted to build a canal across Panama (then a province of Colombia) but failed due to poor planning, lack of funds, and deadly tropical diseases.
When the French offered to sell their rights, Roosevelt agreed and instructed Secretary of State John Hay to negotiate a treaty with Colombia.
The proposed treaty stipulated an upfront payment of $10,000,000 plus an annual rental fee for a six-mile canal zone across the Isthmus.
The Colombian Senate rejected the deal, demanding double the price.
Roosevelt's Reaction to Colombia's Refusal
Roosevelt was enraged, stating, "I do not think that the Bogota lot of jackrabbits should be allowed permanently to bar one of the future highways of civilization."
He viewed Colombia's refusal as the manifestation of the "chaos" he deplored.
Roosevelt genuinely believed the canal would benefit the United States and civilization, often intertwining these motivations with his personal ambition.
He had little patience for anyone who "obstructed civilization" or failed to align with his historical vision and was resolved to ensure an American canal was built.
The Panamanian Revolution
Unable to directly attack Colombia, Roosevelt instead leveraged the long-standing desire for independence among the people of Panama province.
He met with Philippe Bunau-Varilla, a lobbyist for the French canal builders, who was in contact with Panamanian rebels.
During their "delicate conversation," Bunau-Varilla predicted a revolution in Panama province.
Roosevelt's silence on how the U.S. might respond was understood as tacit approval, allowing Bunau-Varilla to accurately guess American support and advise the rebels accordingly.
Five days later, the rebels proclaimed independence.
An American cruiser landed troops, quickly overcoming the few Colombian soldiers (some of whom had already been bought off by the revolutionaries). The entire revolution concluded within hours.
Aftermath and U.S. Recognition
On November 3, at 11:35 AM, Roosevelt received news of the successful revolution while presiding over a cabinet meeting.
By lunchtime, the United States had recognized the newly formed Republic of Panama.
Roosevelt claimed the people of the Isthmus "rose literally as one man," to which a Senate critic famously retorted, ". . . and that man was Roosevelt."