APHG Unit 7 SmartNote

Development: A Comprehensive Overview

Development is a central theme applicable across all units, making it a significant topic for FRQs.

Learning Goals

  • Define "development."

  • Describe how development is measured.

  • Explain how development can be encouraged.

  • Explain how development ties into APHG units 1-5.

Development: The Big Picture

  • Development encompasses:

    • Economic aspects (jobs, incomes, GDP, etc.).

    • Social/Cultural aspects (healthcare, education, quality of life, equality, etc.).

    • Political aspects (dependent on government policy).

    • e(N)vironmental aspects (pollution, resource use, land development, conservation).

  • Measures of development primarily focus on economic and social dimensions.

  • Per capita: "per person."

  • Various methods exist to describe and compare development levels.

Terms of Development

System

Low End

Middle Range

High End

Economic Level (based on GDP)

Low Income

Middle Income

High Income

Economic Development

Less Economically Developed Country (LEDC)

Emerging or Developing Economies

More Economically Developed Country (MEDC)

Level of Industrialization

Non-Industrialized

Newly Industrialized Country (NIC)

Post-Industrial Economy

Human Development Index (HDI)

Low HDI

Medium HDI

High & Very High HDI

World Systems Theory (Immanuel Wallerstein)

Periphery Country

Semi-Periphery Country

Core Country

Stages of Economic Growth (W.W. Rostow)

Stages 1-2

Stage 3

Stages 4-5

Important Note on DTM

The Demographic Transition Model (DTM) is not a development model. However, its demographic data can indicate a country's development level and aligns with the Rostow model but has different characteristics and purposes.

Economic Measures of Development

Key Metrics

  • GNP (Gross National Product).

  • GDP (Gross Domestic Product).

  • GNI (Gross National Income) per capita:

    • Similar measures with slight technical differences; all gauge a country’s income.

  • % of labor force in each economic sector:

    • Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary, and quinary sectors.

  • PPP (Purchasing Power Parity):

    • A comparative measure that accounts for currency value changes.

Gini Coefficient and Income Inequality

  • Gini Coefficient (Gini Index): Measures wealth distribution within a population.

    • A high number indicates high inequality.

  • Developing countries often exhibit the highest income inequality.

  • Highly developed countries (e.g., Western Europe) tend to have lower income inequality.

Gini Index

Gini Index

<30

30-35

35-40

40-45

45-50

50-55

55-60

>60

Social Measures of Development

Focus Areas

  • Social measures focus on living conditions.

    • Demographic measures are commonly used:

      • Life expectancy, IMR (Infant Mortality Rate), TFR (Total Fertility Rate), NIR (Natural Increase Rate).

      • Provide insights into healthcare access, education, and gender equality.

  • Gender Gap: Differences in privileges between males and females.

    • Manifests in educational opportunities, wages, employment, voting rights, healthcare, political empowerment, property rights, etc.

Gender Inequality Index (GII)

  • Summarizes different opportunities available to males and females.

    • Measures reproductive health, empowerment, and labor market participation.

      • Reproductive Health: Maternal mortality rate and adolescent fertility rate.

      • Empowerment: Share of government seats held by each sex and proportion of adults with secondary education.

      • Labor Market Participation: Labor force participation rate of females and males (15+).

  • Creates a composite score to measure gender inequality.

    • Example: Guatemala = 0.533; Sweden = 0.055.

Examples of Gender Inequality Index (GII) Scores

  • Best GII:

    • Switzerland (0.039)

    • Denmark (0.040)

    • Netherlands (0.044)

    • Sweden (0.044)

    • USA score = 0.189 (rank 41)

  • Worst GII:

    • Yemen (0.834)

    • Chad (0.708)

    • Mali (0.678)

    • Central African Republic (0.673)

Human Development Index (HDI)

  • Created yearly by the United Nations.

  • Combines one economic measure (GNI per capita) with several social measures (life expectancy, gender equality, education level, etc.).

Top 10 Most Developed Countries (2020)

Rank

Country

HDI Value

Life Expectancy (Years)

Expected Years of Schooling

Mean Years of Schooling

GNI per capita (PPP $)

1

Norway

0.957

82.4

18.1

12.9

66,494

2

Ireland

0.955

82.3

18.7

12.7

68,371

2

Switzerland

0.955

83.8

16.3

13.4

69,394

4

Hong Kong

0.949

84.9

16.9

12.3

62,985

4

Iceland

0.949

83.0

19.1

12.8

54,682

6

Germany

0.947

81.3

17.0

14.2

55,314

7

Sweden

0.945

82.8

19.5

12.5

54,508

8

Australia

0.944

83.4

22.0

12.7

48,085

8

Netherlands

0.944

82.3

18.5

12.4

57,707

10

Denmark

0.940

80.9

18.9

12.6

58,662

Next 10 (including USA)

Rank

Country

HDI Value

Life Expectancy (Years)

Expected Years of Schooling

Mean Years of Schooling

GNI per capita (PPP $)

11

Finland

0.938

81.9

19.4

12.8

48,511

11

Singapore

0.938

83.6

16.4

11.6

88,155

13

United Kingdom

0.932

81.3

17.5

13.2

46,071

14

Belgium

0.931

81.6

19.8

12.1

52,085

14

New Zealand

0.931

82.3

18.8

12.8

40,799

16

Canada

0.929

82.4

16.2

13.4

48,527

17

United States

0.926

78.9

16.3

13.4

63,826

18

Austria

0.922

81.5

16.1

12.5

56,197

19

Israel

0.919

83.0

16.2

13.0

40,187

19

Japan

0.919

84.6

15.2

12.9

42,932

Bottom of the List

Rank

Country

HDI Value

Life Expectancy (Years)

Expected Years of Schooling

Mean Years of Schooling

GNI per capita (PPP $)

181

Mozambique

0.456

60.9

10.0

3.5

1,250

182

Burkina Faso

0.452

61.6

9.3

1.6

2,133

182

Sierra Leone

0.452

54.7

10.2

3.7

1,668

184

Mali

0.434

59.3

7.5

2.4

2,269

185

Burundi

0.433

61.6

11.1

3.3

754

185

South Sudan

0.433

57.9

5.3

4.8

2,003

187

Chad

0.398

54.2

7.3

2.5

1,555

188

Central African Rep.

0.397

53.3

7.6

4.3

993

189

Niger

0.394

62.4

6.5

2.1

1,201

Core-Periphery Model (Wallerstein)

  • Developed by Immanuel Wallerstein in the 1970s.

  • Dependency Model: Countries are part of an intertwined world system.

  • Core: Economically advantaged countries.

    • Center of world business.

    • Tertiary & Quaternary economic sectors.

    • Promotes capital accumulation ($).

    • Dominates periphery & semi-periphery.

    • Examples: USA, UK, Japan, Australia, Germany.

  • Semi-Periphery: Middle-income, emerging economies.

    • Secondary economic sectors.

    • Provides the core with manufactured goods and services previously offered by the core.

    • Examples: India, Mexico, South Africa, Brazil, China.

  • Periphery: Least-developed countries.

    • Primary economic sector.

    • High percentage of jobs in low-skill, labor-intensive production.

    • Provides core & semi-periphery with raw materials, labor, and agriculture.

    • Receives jobs but few profits from manufacturing.

    • Examples: Afghanistan, Zimbabwe, Peru, Kenya.

Rostow’s Stages of Economic Development

  • Developed by Walt W. Rostow, an American economist, in 1960.

  • Modernization model describing the shift from traditional to modern societies.

  • Based on the US and Western Europe.

  • Five stages similar to the DTM but distinct.

Rostow’s Stages Explained

  • Stage 1: Traditional Society

    • Primary sector economy.

    • Limited technology.

    • Local or regional trading.

    • Limited socio-economic mobility.

    • Examples: Medieval Europe, British colonies. (No country at this stage today)

  • Stage 2: Pre-Conditions for Take-Off

    • Improved infrastructure.

    • Better farming techniques.

    • Beginnings of international trade.

    • Slightly better technology.

    • More socio-economic mobility.

    • Examples: USA early-1800s, Nigeria & Afghanistan today.

  • Stage 3: Take-Off

    • New technology.

    • Industrialization starts.

    • Secondary sector jobs grow; primary sector shrinks.

    • Urbanization begins.

    • Examples: USA mid-1800s; Japan late-1800s; Bangladesh today.

  • Stage 4: Drive to Maturity

    • New industries created.

    • Better energy, transportation, & communication systems.

    • Economic growth faster than population growth.

    • Invests in social infrastructure (schools, hospitals).

    • Examples: USA late-1800s; Germany early-1900s; Brazil today.

  • Stage 5: High Mass Consumption

    • Consumerism: people spend on nonessential goods.

    • Purchase of luxury goods more common.

    • Greater push for equality.

    • Strong tertiary sector.

    • Examples: USA 1920s-now; Japan 1950s-now.

Rostow vs. DTM

DTM focuses on population growth, while Rostow focuses on economic growth, though they are interconnected.

BRICS & NICS

  • BRICS: Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa (major industrializing countries).

  • NICS: Newly Industrializing Countries (e.g., China, Thailand, Philippines, Mexico, Turkey, Malaysia).

UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Consider how measures and models of development apply to the SDGs and other units.