Classical Greece

Geography and Climate of Ancient Greece 🌍

The physical geography of ancient Greece played a significant role in shaping the country's traditions and customs. The region consisted of a mountainous peninsula jutting out into the Mediterranean Sea, with about 2,000 islands in the Aegean, Ionian, and Ionian seas.

Effects of Geography on Development

Climate

Greece has a varied climate, with moderate temperatures averaging 48°F in winter and 80°F in summer. This climate supported an outdoor life for many Greek citizens, who spent much of their leisure time at outdoor public events.

The Mycenaean Civilization 🏯

The Mycenaeans developed a large and powerful civilization in ancient Greece, with their leading city, Mycenae, located in southern Greece. The city was fortified with a protective wall over 20 feet thick and was ruled by a warrior king.

Contact with the Minoans

The Mycenaeans came into contact with the Minoan civilization, which had a significant impact on their culture. The Mycenaeans adapted the Minoan writing system to the Greek language and decorated their palaces with Minoan designs.

The Trojan War

The Mycenaeans fought a 10-year war against Troy, an independent trading city located in Anatolia. The war was sparked by the kidnapping of Helen, the beautiful wife of a Greek king, by a Trojan prince.

The Dorian Period 🌫

After the Trojan War, the Mycenaean civilization collapsed, and the Dorians, a new group of people, moved into the war-torn countryside. The Dorians spoke a dialect of Greek and were consistent relatives of the bronze age Greeks.

The Loss of Writing

During the Dorian period, the Greeks appear to have temporarily lost the art of writing. This period, which lasted from 1150 to 750 BC, is often referred to as Greece's "dark age."

The Epics of Homer

The epics of Homer, including the Iliad and the Odyssey, were important to the Greeks of the Dorian period. These epic poems celebrated heroic deeds and provided a way for the Greeks to learn about their history through the spoken word.

Greek Mythology 🌟

The Greeks developed a rich set of myths, or traditional stories, about their gods. These myths explained the mysteries of nature and the power of human passions.

Key Gods and Goddesses

Key Terms and People

• Polis: A city-state in ancient Greece

• Acropolis: A citadel or fortified area in ancient Greece

• Monarchy: A system of government in which a single ruler holds power

• Aristocracy: A system of government in which power is held by a small group of noble individuals

• Oligarchy: A system of government in which power is held by a small group of individuals

• Tyrant: A ruler who holds power through force or coercion

• Democracy: A system of government in which power is held by the people

Assessment

Culture Contribution

Characteristics of Greek City States

Greek city states had several common characteristics:

• They were made up of a city and its surrounding countryside, which included numerous villages.

• Most city states controlled between 55-100 square miles of territory.

• They were often home to fewer than 10,000 residents.

• Citizens gathered to discuss city government at the agora or marketplace or on a fortified hilltop called an acropolis.

Forms of Government

Greek city states had many different forms of government:

Tyrants

Powerful individuals, usually nobles or other wealthy citizens, sometimes seized control of the government by appealing to the common people for support. These rulers were called tyrants.

Distribution of Greek City States

The distribution of Greek city states can be described as follows:

• They were located in the southern part of Greece, with the majority being found in the Peloponnese region.

• Athens was located about 150 miles from Sparta.

Athens Builds a Limited Democracy

The idea of representative government also began to take root in some city states, particularly Athens. Athenians avoided major political upheavals by making timely reforms.

Key Reforms

• Draco's Code: A legal code developed by Draco in 621 BC that attempted to meet the needs of Athenian society.

• Solon's Reforms: Reforms introduced by Solon in 594 BC that outlawed debt slavery and organized all Athenian citizens into 4 social classes according to wealth.

• Cleisthenes' Reforms: Reforms introduced by Cleisthenes around 500 BC that broke up the power of the nobility and increased the power of the assembly.

Athenian Education

Athenian education was focused on preparing boys to be good citizens.

• Boys received training in logic and public speaking.

• They also received training in athletic activities.

• Girls did not attend school, but were educated at home by their mothers and other female members of the household.

Spartan Government and Society

Spartan government had several branches:

• An assembly, which was composed of all Spartan citizens, elected officials, and voted on major issues.

• The Council of Elders, made up of 30 older citizens, proposed laws on which the assembly voted.

• 5 elected officials carried out the laws passed by the assembly.

• 2 kings ruled over Sparta's military forces.

Spartan Social Order

The Spartan social order consisted of several groups:

• Citizens descended from the original inhabitants of the region.

• Non-citizens who were free, worked in commerce and industry.

• Helots, who were little better than slaves and worked in the fields or as house servants.

The Olympic Games 🏅

The ancient Greeks believed that strong healthy citizens helped strengthen the city state. They often included sporting events in the festivals they held to honor their gods.

• The most famous sports festival was the Olympic games, held every 4 years.

• Records of Olympics winners started in 776 BC.

• The Olympics was expanded to 5 days in 472 BC.## Ancient Olympic Games 🏅

The ancient Olympic Games were held in honor of Zeus, the father of all Greek gods and goddesses. According to legend, Zeus hurled a thunderbolt from Mount Olympus at a spot in rural Greece, where an altar was built and eventually many buildings were erected around it, becoming the site for the Olympic games.

Women's Sports in Ancient Greece

Women's sportswomen had their own sports festival in ancient Greece, the Hera Festival, which was held every 4 years. One of the main events was a foot race for unmarried women.

Ancient Athletes

Ancient athletes, such as discus throwers, would be considered amateurs today because they received no pay for competing. However, they trained rigorously for months at a time. Victors were given lavish gifts and were hailed as heroes.

Spartan Society 🏹

Spartan society was known for its emphasis on duty, strength, and discipline over freedom, individuality, beauty, and life. Boys left home at the age of 7 and moved into army barracks, where they stayed until they reached the age of 30.

Spartan Girls

Spartan girls also led hardy lives, receiving some military training, and running, wrestling, and playing sports. Like boys, girls were taught to put service to Sparta above everything, even love of family.

The Persian Wars 🏹

The Persian Wars between Greece and the Persian Empire began in Ionia on the coast of Anatolia. The Greeks had long been settled there, but around 546 BC, the Persians conquered the area.

The Battle of Marathon

The Battle of Marathon took place in 490 BC, where 10,000 Athenians, neatly arranged in phalanxes, waited for the Persian army. Vastly outnumbered, the Greek soldiers charged, and the Persians, who wore light armor and lacked training in this kind of land combat, were no match for the disciplined Greek phalanx.

The Battle of Thermopylae

The Battle of Thermopylae took place in 480 BC, where 7000 Greeks, including 300 Spartans, blocked the way of the Persian army. The Greeks stopped the Persian advance for 3 days, but a traitor informed the Persians about a secret path around the pass, bringing the Greeks' brave stand to an end.

The Persian Wars: A Timeline 🕰

Key Terms and People 📚

• Aristocracy: A system of government in which power is held by a small group of people, often from wealthy families.

• Oligarchy: A system of government in which power is held by a small group of people, often from wealthy families, but with a more limited scope of power than an aristocracy.

• Solon: An Athenian statesman who introduced reforms that laid the foundation for Athenian democracy.

• Kleisthenes: An Athenian statesman who introduced the concept of citizenship and the idea of a representative government.

The Delian League 🤝

The Delian League was an alliance of Greek city-states formed in 479 BC to continue the war against the Persians. The league was led by Athens and eventually grew to include over 200 city-states.

The Golden Age of Athens 💫

The Golden Age of Athens was a period of cultural and economic flourishing that occurred in the 5th century BC, following the Persian Wars. During this time, Athens emerged as a major power and became a center of learning, art, and culture.## 🏛 Athenian Democracy 🏛

Athenian democracy was a system of government in which power was held by the people, either directly or through elected representatives. This system was characterized by the following key features:

• Citizenship: Only male citizens who were at least 18 years old and had citizen parents were allowed to participate in the democratic process.

• Assembly: The assembly was a gathering of all citizens who would meet to discuss and vote on laws and policies.

• Council of 500: The council of 500 was a group of citizens who were chosen by lot to serve as the executive branch of the government.

• Juries: Juries were composed of citizens who were chosen by lot to hear cases and make decisions.

📊 Comparison of Athenian and US Democracy 📊

🏛 Pericles and the Golden Age of Athens 🏛

Pericles was a prominent Athenian statesman who played a key role in shaping the city's democracy. He was born into a wealthy and influential family and was known for his honesty, fairness, and skill as a politician.

Pericles' goals included:

• Strengthening Athenian democracy

• Strengthening and holding the empire

• Glorifying Athens

To achieve these goals, Pericles implemented several reforms, including:

• Increasing the number of public officials who were paid salaries

• Allowing even the poorest citizens to serve in public office

📜 The Peloponnesian War 📜

The Peloponnesian War was a conflict between Athens and Sparta that lasted from 431 to 404 BC. The war was sparked by tensions between the two city-states, which had been building for decades.

Causes of the War:

• Athens' growing influence in Greece

• Sparta's fear of Athenian democracy

• Disputes over trade and territory

Battle Strategies:

• Athens: Avoid land battles, use navy to attack Sparta and its allies

• Sparta: Use army to attack Athens and its allies, try to weaken Athenian navy

🗺 Map Analysis 🗺

The map below shows the location of Athens and its allies during the Peloponnesian War.

📝 Assessment 📝

1. What were the key features of Athenian democracy?

2. How did Pericles' reforms strengthen Athenian democracy?

3. What were the causes and effects of the Peloponnesian War?

4. What were the battle strategies of Athens and Sparta during the war?

5. Was the time of Pericles' rule a golden age for Athens? Explain.## Classical Culture 🏛

The Golden Age of Greece

During the 5th century BC, Greece experienced a period of cultural and economic growth known as the Golden Age. This era saw significant advancements in art, politics, literature, and philosophy.

Characteristics of Greek Architecture and Art

The Parthenon 🏯

The Parthenon, built between 447 and 432 BC, is an excellent example of Greek architectural ideals. It was designed using a ratio found in nature, known as the Golden Ratio, to create pleasing proportions.

Greek Sculpture 🗿️

Greek sculpture portrayed ideal beauty, focusing on the human form in its most perfect state. Sculptors aimed to capture the grace and serenity of the human body.

Painting 🎨

Greek painting was characterized by the use of red and black colors, with the red being the natural color of the clay vessels and the black being a glaze added to the finished pieces.

Poetry and Drama 📚

Lyric Poetry

Lyric poetry, named after the musical instrument called the lyre, dealt with emotions and desires. Poets like Pindar wrote poems to commemorate public events.

Tragedy and Comedy

Notable Dramatists

History 📖

Herodotus

Herodotus pioneered the accurate reporting of events, writing the first work of history, The Persian Wars.

Thucydides

Thucydides believed that certain types of events and political situations recur over time, and that studying these events would aid in understanding the present.

Xenophon

Xenophon concentrated on describing events, rather than debating sources, in his historical writings.## 🏛 Classical Greek Culture: Philosophy

The Emergence of Philosophers

After the war, many Athenians lost confidence in democratic government and began to question their values. In this time of uncertainty, several great thinkers appeared. They were determined to seek the truth, no matter where the search led them. The Greeks called such thinkers philosophers, meaning lovers of wisdom.

Key Assumptions of Philosophers

These great thinkers based their philosophy on the following two assumptions:

• The universe (land, sky, and sea) is put together in an orderly way, subject to absolute and unchanging laws.

• People can understand these laws through logic and reason.

The Sophists

One group, the Sophists, questioned people's beliefs about justice and other values. One notable Sophist was Protagoras, who questioned the existence of traditional Greek gods. He also argued that there was no universal standard of truth, saying:

Socrates

A critic of the Sophists was Socrates, who believed that absolute standards did exist for truth and justice. However, he encouraged Greeks to go farther and question themselves and their moral character. Historians believe it was Socrates who said:

Socrates was admired by many who understood his ideas. However, others were puzzled by this man's viewpoints. In 399 BC, Socrates was tried for corrupting the youth of Athens and neglecting the city's gods.

The Socratic Method

Socrates encouraged his students to examine their beliefs. He asked them a series of leading questions to show that people hold many contradictory opinions. This question-and-answer approach to teaching is known as the Socratic method.

Plato

Plato, a student of Socrates, was in his late twenties when his teacher died. Later, Plato wrote down the conversations of Socrates as a means of philosophical investigation. Sometime in the 370s BC, Plato wrote his most famous work, The Republic. In it, he set forth his vision of a perfectly governed society.

Aristotle

Aristotle, a student of Plato, questioned the nature of the world and of human belief, thought, and knowledge. Aristotle came close to summarizing all of the knowledge up to his time. He invented a method for arguing according to rules of logic.

🏛 Classical Greek Culture: Alexander the Great

The Rise of Alexander

Alexander the Great conquered Persia and Egypt and extended his empire to the Indus River in northwestern India. Alexander's empire extended across an area that today consists of many nations and diverse cultures.

Philip II of Macedonia

Philip II, Alexander's father, was a brilliant general and a ruthless politician. He transformed the rugged peasants under his command into a well-trained professional army. Philip used this heavy phalanx formation to break through enemy lines.

The Conquest of Greece

Philip's army soundly defeated the Greeks at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. This defeat ended Greek independence. The city-states retained self-government in local affairs, but Greece itself remained firmly under the control of a succession of foreign powers.

Alexander's Military Campaigns

Alexander promptly demonstrated that his military training had not been wasted. When the people of Thebes rebelled, he destroyed the city. About 6000 Thebans were killed. The survivors were sold into slavery.

🤔 Key Terms and People

• Philosopher: a lover of wisdom

• Sophist: a group of thinkers who questioned people's beliefs about justice and other values

• Socratic method: a question-and-answer approach to teaching

• The Republic: Plato's most famous work, which sets forth his vision of a perfectly governed society

• Alexander the Great: a king who conquered Persia and Egypt and extended his empire to the Indus River in northwestern India## Alexander's Conquests 🏹

Early Conquests

Alexander took his father's advice and rode Bucephalus at the head of a great army, conquering the lands from Greece to the Indus Valley. When the horse died in what is now Pakistan, Alexander named the city of Bucephalah after it.

Invasion of Persia

With Greece now secure, Alexander felt free to carry out his father's plan to invade and conquer Persia. In 334 BC, he led 35,000 soldiers across the Hellespont (Ancient name for the Dardanelles, the narrow straits that separate Europe from Asia Minor) into Anatolia.

Battle of Granicus

The two forces met at the Granicus River. Instead of waiting for the Persians to make the first move, Alexander ordered his cavalry to attack. Leading his troops into battle, Alexander smashed the Persian defenses.

Battle of Issus

Alexander's victory at Granicus alarmed the Persian king, Darius III. Knowing to crush the invaders, he raised a huge army of between 50,000 to 1,075,000 men to face the Macedonians near Issus. Realizing that he was outnumbered, Alexander surprised his enemies. He ordered his finest troops to break through a weak point in the Persian lines. The army then charged straight at Darius.

Conquest of Egypt

Alexander marched into Egypt, a Persian territory, in 332 BC. The Egyptians welcomed him as a liberator. They crowned him pharaoh or god king. During his time in Egypt, Alexander founded the city of Alexandria at the mouth of the Nile River.

Conquest of Mesopotamia

After leaving Egypt, Alexander moved east into Mesopotamia to confront Darius. The desperate Persian king assembled a force of some 250,000 men. The two armies met at Gaugamela. Alexander's victory at Gaugamela ended Persia's power. Within a short time, Alexander's army occupied Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis.

Death of Alexander

Alexander died in 323 BC at the age of 32. His generals began a power struggle, which eventually led to the division of his empire.

Key Terms and People

Timeline of Alexander's Conquests

Hellenistic Culture 🌎

Definition

Characteristics

• A blend of Greek and Eastern customs

• Spread of Greek language and culture throughout the empire

• Emergence of new cities and trade centers

• Development of new art and architecture styles

Key Terms and People

Life in the Hellenistic World 🌍

Government

• The city-state was no longer the main political unit of the Greek world.

• It was replaced by the kingdom.

• Traditional Greek forms of government such as democracy had given way to monarchy.

Women's Rights

• Women gained the rights to receive an education and to own property.

• Legally, though, women were still not considered equal to men.

Trade and Cultural Diversity

• The Egyptian city of Alexandria became the foremost center of commerce and Hellenistic civilization.

• Trade ships following transportation routes to and from all around the Mediterranean docked in its spacious harbor.

• Alexandria's thriving commerce enabled it to grow and prosper.## Hellenistic Alexandria 🏛

Overview

Hellenistic Alexandria was a magnificent city with royal palaces, a famous museum, and a library. The city was a center of learning and culture, attracting scholars and intellectuals from all over the world.

The Museum and Library

• The museum was a temple dedicated to the Muses, the goddesses of arts and sciences.

• It contained art galleries, a zoo, botanical gardens, and a dining hall.

• The museum was an institute of advanced study, where scholars could pursue their research and interests.

• The library was one of the largest and most famous in the ancient world, with a collection of over 500,000 papyrus scrolls.

• The library was a center of learning and scholarship, where scholars could study and translate ancient texts.

The Pharos Lighthouse 🌊

• The Pharos Lighthouse was a towering structure that stood over 350 feet tall.

• It was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World and a symbol of the city's power and wealth.

• The lighthouse contained a polished bronze mirror that reflected the light from a blazing fire, guiding ships into the harbor.

Hellenistic Scholars

• Hellenistic scholars were a group of intellectuals who lived and worked in Alexandria.

• They were known for their love of learning and their desire to preserve and transmit ancient knowledge.

• Some notable Hellenistic scholars include:

  • Aristarchus, who proposed the first known heliocentric model of the solar system.

  • Eratosthenes, who accurately measured the circumference of the Earth.

  • Euclid, who wrote the famous book "Elements" on geometry.

Astronomy 🌠

Mathematics and Physics 📝

• Hellenistic mathematicians and physicists made significant contributions to their fields.

• Some notable achievements include:

  • Euclid's "Elements", which is still used as a textbook on geometry today.

  • Archimedes' discovery of the principle of buoyancy and his development of the method of exhaustion, a precursor to calculus.

  • The development of the Antikythera mechanism, an ancient analog computer.

Philosophy and Art 🎨

• Hellenistic philosophy was characterized by a focus on individualism and the pursuit of happiness.

• Two major schools of thought emerged during this period:

  • Stoicism: Founded by Zeno, Stoicism emphasized the importance of living in accordance with nature and the pursuit of virtue.

  • Epicureanism: Founded by Epicurus, Epicureanism emphasized the importance of living modestly and avoiding physical pain and mental distress.

Hellenistic Sculpture 🗿️

• Hellenistic sculpture was characterized by a focus on realism and naturalism.

• Some notable examples of Hellenistic sculpture include:

  • The Colossus of Rhodes, a massive bronze statue of the Greek god Helios.

  • The Nike of Samothrace, a marble sculpture of the Greek goddess Nike.

Legacy 🏛

• The Hellenistic period had a profound impact on Western civilization.

• The preservation and transmission of ancient knowledge and culture during this period laid the foundation for the development of modern science, philosophy, and art.