AP Psych Unit 1
Absolute Threshold: The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.
Accommodation: The process by which the lens of the eye adjusts to focus on a specific object.
Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter that plays major roles in muscle activation, memory, and learning.
Action Potential: A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon, resulting from the movement of charged atoms across the neuron's membrane.
Activation-Synthesis Theory: Proposes that dreams are the brain's attempt to interpret random neural activity.
Addiction: A complex condition of compulsive drug use or behaviors, regardless of harmful outcomes.
Agonist: A substance that enhances the effect of neurotransmitters.
Alcohol: A central nervous system depressant that decreases cognitive and motor functions.
All-or-None Response: The principle that a neuron either fires fully or not at all.
Alpha Waves: Relatively slow brain waves linked with relaxation and wakefulness.
Amplitude: The height of a sound wave, influencing its perceived loudness.
Amygdala: Part of the limbic system involved in emotion processing, particularly fear and aggression.
Antagonist: A drug that inhibits neurotransmitter activity.
Aphasia: Loss of the ability to understand or express speech.
Association Areas: Regions in the cerebral cortex that manage higher mental functions like learning and thinking.
Audition: The ability to hear; the sense of hearing.
Auditory Cortex: Brain area responsible for processing sound information.
Autonomic Nervous System: Division controlling involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate and digestion.
Axon: Neuron extension through which impulses are transmitted.
Barbiturates: CNS depressants that lower anxiety but can impair memory and judgment.
Behavior Genetics: Study of how genetics and environment influence behavior.
Biological Psychology: A branch of psychology examining biological connections to behavior.
Biopsychosocial Approach: Combines biological, psychological, and social-cultural perspectives in analysis.
Blind Spot: Area in the field of vision where optic nerve fibers exit the eye, resulting in a small gap in vision.
Blindsight: Ability to respond to visual stimuli without conscious visual awareness.
Bottom-Up Processing: Analysis starting with sensory receptors moving up to brain integration.
Brainstem: The oldest part of the brain, crucial for automatic survival functions.
Broca's Area: Brain region involved in producing speech, located in the frontal lobe.
Caffeine: A stimulant that increases alertness and combats fatigue.
Central Nervous System: Comprises the brain and spinal cord, coordinating information.
Cerebellum: Area that helps regulate voluntary movement and balance.
Cerebral Cortex: Outer layer of the brain linked to complex functions like thinking and planning.
Circadian Rhythm: The 24-hour biological clock regulating bodily rhythms.
Cocaine: A potent stimulant that elevates dopamine levels, creating feelings of euphoria.
Cochlea: A coiled structure in the inner ear transforming sound waves into cochlear signals.
Cochlear Implant: Device that turns sound into electrical signals to stimulate auditory nerves.
Cognitive Neuroscience: Interdisciplinary study focusing on links between brain activity and cognition, such as memory and perception.
Computed Tomography (CT): Imaging technique using X-rays to form detailed brain structure images.
Conduction Hearing Loss: Hearing impairment resulting from damage to the mechanical system in the ear.
Cones: Photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision and high detail.
Consciousness: Awareness of oneself and the surrounding environment.
Consolidation Theory: Theory that sleep strengthens the neural connections forming memories.
Contralateral Control: The concept that opposing sides of the brain control opposite sides of the body.
Cornea: The transparent front layer of the eye that directs light towards the pupil and iris.
Corpus Callosum: Band of neural fibers connecting the brain's hemispheres, facilitating communication between them.
David Hubel: Neurophysiologist noted for research on visual information processing in the brain.
Delta Waves: Slow, large brain waves that signify deep sleep.
Dendrites: Extensions of neurons that receive messages and send impulses to the cell body.
Depolarization: Process that makes a neuron's membrane potential less negative, leading to action potential firing.
Depressants: Substances that lower neural activity and bodily functions.
Dichromatism: Color blindness due to one of the basic color mechanisms being absent or malfunctioning.
Difference Threshold: The minimum difference between two stimuli needed for detection 50% of the time, also known as just noticeable difference (JND).
Dopamine: Neurotransmitter linked to reward, motivation, and movement regulation.
Dream: A sequence of thoughts, images, and emotions during sleep.
Dual Processing: Concept where information is processed in conscious and unconscious ways concurrently.
Electroencephalogram (EEG): Diagrams electrical waves in the brain via electrodes on the scalp.
Embodied Cognition: The theory linking cognitive processes to physical interactions with the environment.
Endocrine System: The body's slower hormone-secreting communication network.
Endorphins: Neurotransmitters that act as natural pain relievers in the brain.
Environment: All non-genetic influences affecting behavior, from prenatal nutrition to social interactions.
Epigenetics: Study of external factors affecting gene expression without altering DNA.
Ernst Weber: German physician known for Weber's law, relating stimulus magnitude to perceived sensation.
Eugenics: Controversial movement aimed at enhancing genetic quality in humans.
Evolutionary Psychology: Exploration of behavior and mental processes using natural selection.
Excitatory Neurotransmitter: A neurotransmitter that increases neuron firing.
Farsightedness (Hyperopia): Condition where distant objects are clear, but close ones appear fuzzy.
Feature Detectors: Neurons that respond to specific stimulus characteristics like shape or movement.
fMRI: Imaging technology revealing brain activity by measuring blood flow during different tasks.
Forebrain: The largest brain region, including the cerebral cortex and other sub-cortical structures.
Fovea: Central area in the retina densely packed with cones for high visual acuity.
Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins: Twins from separate eggs, genetically similar to regular siblings.
Frequency: The number of complete wavelengths passing a point over time.
Frequency Theory: States that the frequency of nerve impulses matches that of a tone, enabling pitch perception.
Frontal Lobes: Areas of the cerebral cortex responsible for planning, judgment, and higher cognitive functions.
GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid): Dominant inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.
Ganglion Cells: Retina neurons that conduct signals from photoreceptors to the brain.
Gate-Control Theory: Theory stating the spinal cord has a mechanism that can block pain signals to the brain.
Genes: Units of heredity making up chromosomes, capable of synthesizing proteins.
Genome: Complete collection of genetic instructions within an organism's chromosomes.
Glial Cells: Supportive cells in the nervous system that aid and protect neurons, including in learning and thinking.
Glutamate: Principal excitatory neurotransmitter, crucial for synaptic plasticity.
Gustation: The sense of taste; the ability to perceive flavors.
Gustav Fechner: Psychologist noted for contributions to psychophysics and concepts like just noticeable difference.
Hallucinations: False perceptions occurring without external stimuli, often linked to mental disorders or substance effects.
Hallucinogens: Drugs causing perception alterations, leading to hallucinations.
Heredity: Genetic transfer of traits from parents to offspring.
Heroin: An addictive opioid that offers intense pleasure and pain relief.
Hindbrain: Lower brainstem section responsible for crucial life functions.
Hippocampus: Limbic system area essential for processing explicit memory storage.
Hormones: Chemical signals produced by glands that aid in regulating bodily functions.
Hue: Color dimension linked to light wavelength; commonly referred to as color names such as red or blue.
Hypnagogic Sensations: Occur during transition to sleep, including hallucinations and muscle jerks.
Hypothalamus: Brain region managing body functions like hunger and temperature; controls the pituitary gland.
Identical (Monozygotic) Twins: Twins developing from a single fertilized egg, genetically identical.
Inhibitory Neurotransmitter: Neurotransmitters that decrease neuronal firing.
Inner Ear: Contains cochlea and balance-related structures, crucial for hearing and equilibrium.
Insomnia: Difficulty in falling or staying asleep.
Intensity: Energy level in light/sound waves perceived as brightness/loudness, respectively.
Interneurons: Brain spinal cord neurons facilitating internal communication between sensory and motor outputs.
Iris: Colored part of the eye that regulates pupil size and light intake.
Jet Lag: Sleep disorder affecting travelers whose internal clocks misalign with local time.
Just Noticeable Difference (JND): Minimum difference in stimuli detectable 50% of the time.
Kinesthesis: Sense enabling awareness of body part positions and movements relative to each other.
Lens: Flexible eye structure behind the pupil essential for focusing light on the retina.
Lesion: Tissue damage typically from disease or injury.
Limbic System: Brain structures flipping emotional, motivational, and memory-related functions.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Imaging technique for detailed brain soft tissue images using magnetic fields.
Magnetoencephalography (MEG): Brain imaging technique measuring magnetic fields from neuronal activity.
Marijuana: THC-containing drug affecting mood, perception, and cognition.
Medulla: Brainstem base section controlling involuntary processes like heart rate and breathing.
Michael Gazzaniga: Renowned neuroscientist known for split-brain studies illuminating hemispheric functions.
Midbrain: Brainstem section dealing with auditory, visual processing, and motor regulation.
Middle Ear: Chamber housing tiny bones focusing eardrum vibrations onto the cochlea.
Monochromatism: Complete color blindness—vision limited only to shades of gray.
Motor (Efferent) Neurons: Neurons directing outgoing signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles.
Motor Cortex: Frontal lobe area controlling voluntary movement.
Multiple Sclerosis: Disorder where the immune system attacks the protective nerve coat, disrupting communication.
Mutation: Random genetic replication error causing a change in genetic makeup.
Myasthenia Gravis: Autoimmune disorder impairing nerve-muscle communication, resulting in weakness.
Myelin: Fatty insulation around axons speeding up neural impulse transmission.
Narcolepsy: Sleep disorder characterized by sudden sleep attacks triggered by emotions.
Natural Selection: Evolutionary principle where beneficial traits favor survival and reproduction, passed to generations.
Nature-Nurture Issue: Debate on genetic versus environmental impacts on human development.
Near-Death Experience: Shifted consciousness reported near death, often accompanied by peaceful sensations.
Nearsightedness (Myopia): Condition where nearby objects are clear, but distant ones are not.
Nervous System: Fast electrochemical system responsible for communication within the body, combining peripheral and central pathways.
Neurogenesis: The creation of new neural cells.
Neuron: Basic nerve cell building block in the nervous system.
Neuroplasticity: Brain ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections through experience and injury.
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messages transmitting signals across synapses between neurons.
Norepinephrine: Involved in arousal and alertness neurotransmitter and hormone.
NREM Sleep: Non-Rapid Eye Movement sleep stages marked by slow brain activity and rest.
Occipital Lobes: Brain regions at the back dedicated to visual information processing.
Oleogustus: Proposed sixth taste sensation, related to fat perception.
Olfaction: Process of smell; involves detection of airborne chemicals.
Opioids: Drug group affecting opioid receptors, inducing pain relief and euphoria.
Opponent-Process Theory: Suggests color perception occurs via complementary color pairs processing.
Optic Nerve: Nerve fiber bundle transmitting visual info from retina to the brain.
Parallel Processing: Brain's capability to concurrently tackle multiple stimulus aspects.
Parasympathetic Nervous System: Autonomic system division that conserves energy and promotes rest.
Parietal Lobes: Cortical regions processing sensory touch and spatial awareness information.
Perception: Cognitive process of interpreting sensory input to recognize meaningful objects or events.
Peripheral Nervous System: Neurons connecting CNS to rest of the body for information transmission.
Pheromones: Chemicals released that alter behavioral or physiological responses in species.
Pitch: Highness or lowness of a tone based on its frequency.
Pituitary Gland: Endocrine system's master gland regulating other glands and body functions.
Place Theory: Links perceived pitch to specific cochlea membrane stimulation locations.
Plasticity: Brain's ability to adapt and change from experiences.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET): Brain imaging identifying active areas via radioactive glucose uptake.
Priming: Activation of specific associations that influence perception or memory.
Prosopagnosia: Face-blindness neurological disorder where individuals cannot recognize faces.
Psychoactive Drug: Substance modifying perception, mood, cognition, or behavior when ingested.
Psychophysics: Study correlating physical stimulus properties with psychological experiences.
Pupil: Adjustable eye opening regulating light entry.
Reflex: Automatic responses to stimuli, like the knee-jerk reaction.
Reflex Arc: Neural pathway governing a reflex action.
Refractory Period: Short phase post-firing where a neuron cannot fire again.
REM Rebound: Increased REM sleep after deprivation of REM phases.
REM Sleep: Rapid Eye Movement stage featuring vivid dreams and marked muscle paralysis.
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder: Actively expressing dreams during REM sleep due to loss of muscle atonia.
Resting Potential: Neuron's electrical charge when inactive.
Reticular Activating System: Brainstem neuron network managing arousal and attention levels.
Reticular Formation: Brainstem neurons' network influencing arousal and focus.
Retina: Inner eye layer that houses receiver cells (rods and cones) for visual processing.
Reuptake: The absorption of neurotransmitters back into the originating neuron after signaling.
Reuptake Inhibitors: Medications obstructing neurotransmitter reabsorption, raising their levels.
Rods: Retinal receptors detecting light in shades of grey for peripheral and low-light vision.
Roger Sperry: Neuropsychologist awarded for split-brain research elaborating on hemispheric brain functions.
Semicircular Canals: Inner ear structures instrumental for balance and head movement detection.
Sensation: Process where sensory receptors detect stimuli and relay them as neural signals.
Sensorineural Hearing Loss: Hearing impairment from cochlea hair cells or auditory nerve damage.
Sensory (Afferent) Neurons: Neurons delivering incoming sensory information to the brain.
Sensory Adaptation: Diminished sensitivity to constant stimuli over time.
Sensory Interaction: Concept where one sense can affect another (e.g., taste via smell).
Sensory Receptors: Specialized cells that transduce stimuli into neural impulses for brain processing.
Sequential Processing: Processing of one stimulus aspect at a time, used with novel tasks needing focused attention.
Serotonin: A neurotransmitter linked to mood, appetite, and sleep regulation.
Sigmund Freud: Austrian neurologist, psychoanalysis founder—a treatment method based on patient-dialogue.
Signal Detection Theory: Predicts detection abilities of stimuli amid background noise's presence.
Sleep: Natural resting state featuring altered consciousness and reduced sensory activity.
Sleep Apnea: Disorder with breathing interruptions during sleep causing exhaustion.
Somatic Nervous System: Peripheral nervous system division governing skeletal muscles and transmitting sensory input.
Somatosensory Cortex: Brain region in the parietal lobe processing sensations from the skin and body.
Somnambulism: Disorder where individuals walk or conduct actions deeply asleep.
Sound Localization: Identifying the position of sound sources.
Spinal Cord: Central nervous system component passing signals between the brain and body.
Split Brain Procedure: Surgery severing the corpus callosum to treat severe epilepsy, revealing differences in brain function.
Stimulants: Substances speeding neural activity and bodily functions, e.g. caffeine, nicotine, cocaine.
Subliminal: Below the threshold for conscious detection.
Substance P: Neurotransmitter relaying pain signals.
Substance Use Disorder: Ongoing use of substances despite serious related issues.
Supertasters: Individuals with an increased sensitivity to flavors and sensations.
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: Hypothalamus area acting as the body clock, adjusting circadian rhythms.
Sympathetic Nervous System: Autonomic division that energizes the body during stress, triggering "fight or flight".
Synapse: Gap between neurons where neurotransmitter release occurs from axon to receiving neuron's dendrite.
Synesthesia: A condition where one sense is perceived simultaneously by multiple senses.
Temporal Lobes: Brain regions above the ears for auditory processing and critical memory, language functions.
Thalamus: Brain's sensory relay center directing sensory messages (except for smell) to cortex areas.
Threshold: Stimulation level needed to trigger a neural impulse.
Tolerance: The condition where regular use diminishes a drug's effects, requiring increased dosages.
Top-Down Processing: Information processing influenced by higher cognitive functions, shaping perceptions based on experiences.
Torsten Wiesel: Renowned neurophysiologist engaged with David Hubel, elucidating visual processing in the brain.
Transduction: Converting one energy form into another, such as stimuli into neural impulses.
Umami: The savory fifth basic taste sensation.
Vestibular Sense: Awareness of body movement and position; includes balance sense.
Visual Accommodation: Mechanism where the lens adjusts shape to focus on objects at varying distances.
Visual Cortex: Brain region that processes visual signals.
Volley Principle: Hearing theory asserting that neuron groups respond to sound by firing action potentials out of sync.
Wavelength: Distance between wave peaks affecting color and pitch perception.
Weber's Law: Principle stating that to perceive differences, two stimuli need to differ by a fixed percentage.
Wernicke's Area: Brain region linked to language comprehension, situated in the temporal lobe.
Withdrawal: Discomfort that arises from halting the use of an addictive substance or behavior.
Young-Helmholtz (Trichromatic) Theory: Theory positing the retina's cones work in three colors (red, green, blue), combining to create other colors.