Comprehensive Notes on Psychological Models and the Biological Perspective

Psychology utilizes various frameworks to understand human behavior. The six primary models identified are:
- $(1)$ Biological
- $(2)$ Behaviouristic
- $(3)$ Cognitive
- $(4)$ Humanistic
- $(5)$ Psychodynamic
- $(6)$ Evolutionary
Current academic focus, as noted in section $1.17$ , centers on the first three models ( $1$ through $3$ ) due to their widespread use by modern psychologists.

The Biological Approach is fundamentally concerned with identifying the causes of human behaviour through the study of biological structures and functions.
Pathological and physiological interests include:
- The functioning of genes
- The nervous system
- The brain
- The endocrine (ductless) glands
Everything that humans feel, act, or say is considered to be intimately connected to these biological processes. While this connection has been recognized in the past, current research findings have led to a significantly greater importance being attached to the biological approach.

Zimbardo identifies four critical assumptions that underpin the biological model:
- $(1)$ Psychological and social phenomena can be understood in terms of biological processes.
- $(2)$ Complex behaviours can be understood by analysing them into smaller, more specific units.
- $(3)$ All behaviours or behaviour potentials are determined by physical structure and largely hereditary processes.
- $(4)$ Experiences can modify behaviour by altering these underlying biological structures and processes.

Genetic psychologists prioritize the role of genes and heredity over environmental factors in the determination of human behaviour.
Hereditary Endowments: Behaviour is viewed as a direct function of the hereditary endowments provided by genes.
Historical and Modern Perspectives:
- Earlier psychologists, such as Pintner, emphasized the role of genes.
- Modern research has further highlighted the dominant importance of genetic influence on behavior.
- Variations in abilities among individuals are attributed to differences in their genes.
Future Genetic Engineering: While heredity is currently immutable, it is suggested that scientists will likely succeed in the future in transplanting genes during conception. This would allow for the modification of behaviour and personality according to specific needs or choices.

Neurological Factors: An individual's behaviour is subject to change if a part of the brain is damaged or altered. Factors leading to such change include:
- Being diseased
- Being destroyed
- Decay due to illness, accidents, or the natural process of aging.
Endocrine Factors: The secretion levels of endocrine glands significantly influence behavioural outcomes. Key concerns include:
- Oversecretion
- Undersecretion

This branch of the biological approach attempts to isolate the specific biological or physiological changes occurring in the brain, nervous system, glands, and hormones in response to various states and activities.
Research in this area examines physiological changes during the following experiences:
- Learning
- Perceiving
- Thinking
- Emoting (experiencing emotions)
- Becoming angry or hungry
- Seeing a movie
- Dreaming or engaging in day dreams
The focus is on understanding how neurological and physiological systems react when an individual responds to information from their environment.

Evolutionary Psychology emerged from the recognition that inherited dispositions have profound effects on human behaviour.
Focus of Study: This field investigates the adjustment problems that human beings have faced over the entire course of evolution.
Evolutionary Mechanisms: It seeks to identify the specific behavioural mechanisms that have evolved in response to environmental pressures (Nisbett, $1990$ ).