EAPP Notes: Abbreviations, Academic Texts, and Writing Techniques

EAPP - a subject that focuses on academic and professional language used in different disciplines.

ABBREVIATION

- Is shortening the original form of a word or phrase to make it

TYPES OF ABBREVIATION

 ACRONYM – a word formed from the initial letters of a phrase or group of words, with the resulting combination pronounced as a word.

Example: NASA – National Aeronautics and Space Administration

RADAR – Radio Detection and Ranging

PIN – Personal Identification Number

ZIP – Zone Improvement Plan

WIP – Work in progress

 INITIALISM – a types of abbreviation formed from the first letter of a series of words, where each letter is pronounced separately.

Example: FBI – Federal Bureau of Investigation

CPU – Central Processing Unit

ATM – Automated Teller Machine

USA – United states of America

TV – Television

SHORTENING - type of abbreviation where a long word is reduced by removing parts of it, often the end, but sometimes the beginning or middle. The shortened form still sounds like a word and is commonly used in everyday language.

Example: Phone – from telephone

Fridge – from refrigerator

Gym – from gymnasium

Exam – from examination

CONTRACTIONS - a shortened form of two (or sometimes more) words where an apostrophe (’) replaces the missing letter(s). Contractions are commonly used in informal speech and writing.

Example: Don’t – from do not

I’m – from I am

Can’t – from cannot

It’s – from it is or it has

They’re – from they are

 BACKRONYM - a phrase created to fit an existing word, where the letters of the word are treated as if they stood for something, even though the word originally wasn’t an acronym.

Example: DEAD - don’t ever assume defeat

GIFT – God’s Investment for tomorrow

NOOB – Newbie on online battle

DATE – day and time engagement

END – efforts never dies

 PORTMANTEAU – a word formed by blending parts of two (or more) words usually the beginning of one word and the end of another into a new single word with a combined meaning

Example: Brunch – breakfast + lunch

Motel – motor + hotel

Smog – smoke + fog

Infomercial – information + commercial

Blog – web + log

NATURE AND CHARACERISTICS OF AN ACADEMIC TEXT

An ACADEMIC TEXT is a written language that provides information,

which contain ideas and concepts that are related to the particular discipline.

Essay, Research Paper, Report, Project, Article, Thesis, and Dissertation are

considered as academic texts.

STRUCTURE

The basic structure that is used by an academic text is consist of three

(3) parts introduction, body, and conclusion which is formal and logical. This kind of structure enables the reader to follow the argument and navigate the text. In academic writing a clear structure and a logical flow are imperative to a

cohesive text.

TONE

This refers to the attitude conveyed in a piece of writing. The arguments

of others are fairly presented and with an appropriate narrative tone. When

presenting a position or argument that disagrees with one’s perspectives,

describe the argument accurately without loaded or biased language

LANGUAGE

It is important to use unambiguous language. Clear topic sentences

enable a reader to follow your line of thinking without difficulty. Formal language

and the third person point of-view should be used. Technical language

appropriate to area of study may also be used, however, it does not mean using

“big words” just for the sake of doing so.

CITATION

Citing sources in the body of the paper and providing a list of references

as either footnotes or endnotes is a very important aspect of an academic text.

It is essential to always acknowledge the source of any ideas, research findings,

data, or quoted text that have been used in a paper as a defense against

allegations of plagiarism.

COMPLEXITY

An academic text addresses complex issues that require higher – older

thinking skills to comprehend.

EVIDENCE – BASED ARGUMENTS

What is valued in an academic text is that opinions are based on a

sound understanding of the pertinent body of knowledge and academic

debates that exist within, and often external to a specific discipline.

THESIS DRIVEN

The starting point of an academic text is a particular perspective, idea

or position applied to the chosen research problem, such as establishing,

proving, or disproving solutions to the questions posed for the topic.

FEATURES OF ACADEMIC TEXTS

 COMPLEX

- Written language has no longer words, it is lexically more

varied vocabulary.

- Written texts are shorter and the language has more

grammatical complexity, including more subordinate

clauses and more passives.

 FORMAL

- Should avoid colloquial words and expressions

 PRECISE

- Facts are given accurately and precisely

 OBJECTIVE

- Has a fewer words that emphasize on the information you

want to give and the arguments you want to make

- Mostly use nouns (adjectives), rather than verb (adverbs)

 EXPLICIT

- It is the responsibility of the writer in English to make it clear

to the reader how the various parts of the text are related.

 ACCURATE

- Uses vocabulary accurately

- Most subjects have words with narrow specific meanings.

 HEDGING

- It is necessary to make decisions about your stance on a

particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are

making.

 RESPONSIBLE

- You must be responsible for and must be able to provide

evidence and justification for any claims you make

 ORGANIZE

- Well organize

- It flows easily from one section to the next in a logical

fashion

 PLAN

- Well planned

- It usually takes place after research and evaluation,

according to specific purpose and plan.

ACADEMIC TEXTS

Purpose

 Audience: Scholars, researchers

 Formal Language

 Structured (intro, body, conclusion)

 Objective and evidence based

 Cites sources

NON – ACADEMIC TEXTS

Purpose

 Audience: general public

 Informal

 May follow a loose or casual format

 Subjective or personal tone

 Often opinion based less cited data

PURPOSES IN READING ACADEMIC TEXT

1. To locate main idea

2. To scan for information

3. To identify the gaps in existing studies

4. To connect new ideas to existing ones

5. To gain more pieces of information

6. To support a particular writing assignment

7. To deeply understand an existing idea

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN WRITING ACADEMIC TEXT

1. State critical questions and issues

2. Provide facts and evidence from credible sources

3. Use precise and accurate words while avoiding jargon

4. Take an objective point of view

5. List references

6. Use cautious language

ACADEMIC LANGUANGE is the language needed by students to do

the work in schools. It includes, for example, discipline-specific vocabulary,

grammar and punctuation, and applications of rhetorical conventions and

devices that are typical for a content area .

• In textbooks, research papers, conferences, in spoken/written form .

• Doesn’t use slang but uses variety of terms, and complete sentences

• Sentences begin with appropriate transitions like, “moreover” or “on

  addition”

SOCIAL LANGUAGE is the set of vocabulary that allows us to

communicate with others in the context of regular daily conversations

• In everyday interactions in spoken/written form

• Uses slang expressions, can be repetitive, and can use phrases

• Sentences don’t allow grammar conventions necessarily, with

  phrases like “you hungry?”

CHARACTERISTICS OF ACADEMIC LANGUAGE

A. FORMAL

- It should not sound conversational or casual. Colloquial, idiomatic, slang or journalistic expressions should particularly be avoided

(Examples: Consider, monitor Look at Revise, review Go over Solve, repair, amend Fix)

B. OBJECTIVE

- This means it is unbiased. It should be based on facts and evidence and are not influence by personal feelings.

C. IMPERSONAL

- This involves avoiding the personal pronouns ‘I’ and ‘we’. For example, instead of writing ‘I will show’, you might write ‘this report will show’. The second person ‘you’, is also to be avoided.

TEXT STRUCTURE

Common Text Structures

Text structures (WDPI, 2012) refer to the way authors organize information in text. Recognizing the underlying structure of texts can help students focus attention on key concepts and relationships, anticipate what is to come, and monitor their comprehension as they read

1. Narrative - Narrates an event/ story with characters, settings, conflict, point of view, an plot. ( Descriptive language like adjectives, adverbs, similes, and metaphors )

2. Chronological, Process, or Sequence - Present ideas or events in the order in which things happen. ( words that shows order )

3. Cause and Effect - Provide explanations or reasons for phenomena. ( If/then, as a result, because, therefore, since, etc )

4. Problem/ Solution - Identify problems and pose solutions. ( problem is, dilemma is, because, answer, etc )

5. Compare and Contrast - Discuss two ideas, events, or phenomena, showing how they are different and how they are similar. ( however/yet, nevertheless, on the other hand, but/ whereas-similarly, etc )

6. Definition or Description - Describes a topic by listing characteristics, features, attributes, and examples. ( for example, characteristics, for instances, such as, including, to illustrate )

Why is Text Structure Important?

The readers can significantly improve their comprehension and

retention of information when they can identify and recognize the text

structure of a text. It can also help them:

1. Organize information and details they are learning in their minds while reading

2. Make connections between the details being presented in a text

3. Summarize the important details shared in a text

At this stage, you should have several ideas on the common text structures used in academic texts. Keep in mind these ideas because you are going to use your knowledge on text structures for enhancing your skills in gleaning information.

TECHNIQUES IN SUMMARIZING ACADEMIC TEXTS

Summarizing is how we take larger selections of text and reduce them to their bare essentials: the gist, the key ideas, the main points that are worth noting and remembering. Webster's calls a summary the "general idea in brief form"; it's the distillation, condensation, or reduction of a larger work into its primary notions.

Basic Rules:

a) Erase things don’t matter

b) Erase things that repreat

c) Trade, general terms for specific names

d) Use your own words to write the summary

TECHNIQUES:

1. Somebody Wanted But So Then - The strategy helps students generalize,

recognize cause and effect relationships, and find main ideas.

 Somebody (Wo is the text about?)

 Wanted (What did the main character want?)

 But (What was the problem encountered?)

 So (How was the problem solved?)

 Then (Tell how the story ends.)

2. SAAC Method – This method particularly helpful in summarizing any

kind of text. SAAC is an acronym for “State, Assign, Action,

Complete.” Each word in the acronym refers to a specific element

that should be included in the summary.

 State (the name of the article, book, or story)

 Assign (the name of the author)

 Action (what the author is doing (example: tells, explain))

 Complete(complete the sentence or summary with keywords and important details

3. 5 W’s, 1 H - This technique relies on six crucial questions: who, what,

when where, why, and how. These questions make it easy to identify

the main character, important details, and main idea.

 Who is the story about?

 What did they do?

 When did the action take place?

 Where did the story happen?

 Why did the main character do what she/he did?

 How did the main character do what she/he did?

4. First Then Finally – It helps student to summarize events in

chronological order.

 First: What happened first? Include the main character and

main event/action.

 Then: What key details took place during the event/action?

 Finally: What were the results of the event/action?

5. Give Me the Gist - This type of techniques is like giving a friend the

gist of a story. In other words, they want a summary – not a retelling

of every detail.

IDENTIFYING THESIS STATEMENT AND OUTLINE READING THESIS STATEMENT

A thesis statement is the controlling idea that you will develop in your paper. This can be found usually at the end of an introduction. A thesis statement can be one sentence. However, if necessary, it can also be two or three sentences.

ELEMENTS OF A THESIS STATEMENT

1. Topic – the topic of your paper.

2. Argument/Claim – this depends on the type of paper you are writing. If it is an argumentative paper, then this should express your opinion. If it is a research or explanatory paper, this should explain the purpose of your paper.

3. Evidence – the support for your argument/claim

OUTLINE

An outline is a design to follow when writing a structure, a discourse, or a article. It arranges a material in a logical way into main ideas, supporting ideas, and supporting details. The main idea or topic is the main topic of the outline. All main topics are indicated by Roman Numeral. Subtopics are noted by letters and supporting details are indicated by Arabic Numerals.

 Topic outline - a hierarchical arrangement of ideas, using words

and phrases, that shows the structure of a paper or

presentation.

 Sentence outline - a structured document that uses complete

sentences to represent the main ideas and supporting points of

a written work.

GUIDELINES IN WRITING AN OUTLINE:

1. Place the title at the center above the outline.

2. Every level of the outline must have at least two items (I and II, A and B, 1 and 2).

3. Put a period after each numeral and letter.

4. Indent each new level of the outline.

5. All items of one kind (roman numerals, capital letters, Arabic numerals) should lineup with each other.

6. Capitalize the first letter of each item.

7. The term Introduction, Body, and Conclusion do not have to be included in the outline. They are not topics; there are merely organizational units in the writer’s mind.

PARALLELISM - When elements in a series or comparison are phrased using the same grammatical structure.

COORDINATION - Ideas of equal importance are given equal weight in the outline. This is typically shown by using the same level of heading (e.g., Roman numerals, capital letters).

SUBORDINATION - Moving from general to specific ideas. Major points are presented first, followed by supporting details, often indicated by indentation and different levels of headings (e.g., Roman numerals, then capital letters, then Arabic numerals).

APPROACHES IN LITERARY CRITICISM

LITERARY CRITICISM

- Is the evaluation of literary works. This includes the classification by genre, analysis of structure and judgment of value.

1. FORMALIST CRITICISM

- This approach regards literature as “a unique form of human knowledge that needs to be examined on its own terms.” It focuses strictly on the form and structure of a text, its language, style, imagery, tone, syntax, and literary devices, rather than on its historical context, author’s biography, or social/political implications. A primary goal for formalist critics is to determine how such elements work together with the text’s content to shape its effect upon readers.

2. GENDER CRITICISM

- This approach “examines how sexual identity influences the creation and reception of literary works.” It is a type of literary and cultural analysis that examines how gender influences the way literature is written, read, and understood. It emerged to include masculinity studies, and other gender-focused perspective.

3. HISTORICAL CRITICISM

- This approach “seeks to understand a literary work by investigating the social, cultural, and intellectual context that produced it – a context that necessarily includes the artist’s biography and milieu. A key goal for historical critics is to understand the effect of a literary work upon its original readers.

4. READER-RESPONSE CRITICISM

- This approach takes as a fundamental tenet that “literature” exists not as an artifact upon a printed page but as a transaction between the physical text and the mind of a reader. It attempts “to describe what happens in the reader’s mind while interpreting a text” and reflects that reading, like writing, is a creative process.

a) Transactional Reader-response Theory – Led by Louise Rosenblatt and supported by Wolfgang Iser. Meaning created through the interaction (transaction) between the reader and the text.

b) Psychological Reader-response Theory – By Norman Holland. Believes that the readers motive heavily affect how they read.

c) Subject Reader-response Theory – Associated with David Bleich. The meaning exists in the reader’s personal interpretation.

d) Social Reader-response Theory – By Stanley Fish. States that any individual interpretation of a text is created in an interpretative community of minds consisting of participants who share a specific reading and interpretation strategy.

5. MEDIA CRITICISM

- It is the act of closely examining and judging the media. When we examine the media and various media stories, we often find instances of media bias. Media bias is the perception that the media is reporting the news in a partial or prejudiced manner. Media bias occurs when the media seems to push a specific viewpoint, rather than reporting the news objectively.

6. MARXIST CRITICISM

- It is concerned with differences between economic classes and the implications of a capitalist system. It attempts to reveal that the ultimate source of people’s experience is the socioeconomic system.

7. STRUCTUALISM

- It focused on how human behavior is determined by social, cultural and psychological structures. It tended to offer a single unified approach to human life that would embrace all disciplines. The essence of structuralism is the belief that “things cannot be understood in isolation; they have to be seen in the context of larger structures which contain them.

WRITING THE REACTION PAPER/REVIEW/CRITIQUE REACTION PAPER

- The writer expresses his ideas and opinions about what has been read or seen.

- It is evaluated

- A form of paper writing that is 2-5 pages long and comprises the introduction, body, and conclusion.

TYPES OF REACTION PAPER

 Descriptive Reaction Paper – describe your impression on a book, article, or movie. You simply state what you feel or think after your interaction with the material.

 Critical Reaction Paper – evaluates the skills of an author’s writing in terms of their writing technique as well as the content of what they are writing.

 Quantitative Reaction Paper – where the study material is measurable. The content you read or watched is measured in quantitative terms (numerical data or statistical methods)

GUIDELINES IN WRITING A REACTION PAPER

1. Read the material carefully

2. Mark interesting parts

3. Write thoughts while reading/watching

4. Create a thesis statement

5. Make an outline

6. Construct your paper

REVIEW PAPER

- Is a critical assessment or evaluation of a work of art, literature, film, or performance.

- Requires the writer to provide an overview of the work, analyze its strengths and weaknesses, and offer recommendations for improvement

- It is inherently subjective, its expresses the writer’s personal opinions and interpretations of the text

TYPES OF REVIEW PAPER

 Narrative Review – it provides a reliable account of the current understanding of the topic. It provides an overview of what is known about the research topic with the aim of evaluating the materials. In most cases, these are topic based and are usually presented in a narrative format.

 Systematic Review – is a systematic way of collecting, critically evaluating, integrating, and presenting findings from across multiple research studies on a research questions or topic interest.

GUIDELINES IN WRITING REVIEW PAPER

1. Choose a topic

2. Research extensively

3. Organize your paper

OVERVIEW OF THE PAPER

 Introduction

 Body of the paper

 Conclusion and future directions

 Literature cited

CRITIQUE PAPER

- An academic writing genre that summarizes and gives a critical evaluation of a concept or work.

- Aims to evaluate the impact of the given work of concept in its field.

- Usually longer than the review

- It can either be positive or negative, as the work deserves.

POTENTIAL TOPICS FOR CRITIQUE PAPER

 A scientific study or research paper

 A political speech or debate

 A work of literature or film that you have studied in depth

 An advertisement or marketing campaign

 A piece of music or art that you have a strong opinion about

GUIDELINES IN WRITING CRITQUE PAPER

1. Introduction: provide context for the work being critiqued and include the author and title of the work being analyzed, its main idea, and a strong thesis statement.

2. Summary: only the author’s main ideas and arguments should be included. Must be brief and straight to the point

3. Analysis/Interpretation: Discuss what the author’s/creator’s primary goal was and determine whether this goal was reached successfully. Use the evidence you have gathered to argue whether or not the author/creator achieved was adequately convincing (remember there should be no personal bias in this

discussion)

4. Evaluation/Response: At this point, your readers are ready to learn your objective response to the work. It should be professional yet entertaining to read. Do not hesitate to use strong language. You can say that the work you analyzed was weak and poorly-structured if that is the case, but keep in mind that you have to have evidence to back up your claim.

5. Conclusion: The last paragraph of your work should restate the thesis statement, summarize the key points, and create a sense of closure for the readers.

COMPARISON

While these types of writing share some common elements, they differ in their focus and purpose:

 A Reaction Paper is a personal response to a text

 A Review Paper is an assessment of a work

 A Critique Paper is an evaluation of a work within its field

Understanding the key elements and structures of each can help writers