Pre Renaissance

1300s: Plague, disorder, economic recession, isolation.
Preservation of Latin heritage; Greek sources largely lost or available only in Arabic translations.
1400s: Population growth, rise of city-states, economic recovery, and new exploration.
Renaissance: "Rebirth" of Greco-Roman traditions among urban elites, roughly 1350-1550, especially in Italy.

Optimism regarding human worth and potential.
Revival of Classical Greco-Roman Values:
- Humanism: Celebration of humanity (Sophocles).
- Naturalism: Life according to nature (Zeno of Citium).
- Skepticism: Importance of critical inquiry (Socrates).
- Ideal of l’uomo universale: Maximizing human potential, modeling on nature.

Chinese wood-block printing used as early as the 1100s.
Metal movable type: Invented in Germany circa 1450; by 1500 over 1,000 printers in Europe.
Dominance of religious texts, along with grammar manuals, philosophical treatises, and romances.

Italy’s lack of unification led to independent city-states.
- Milan: Controls trade through the Alps.
- Venice: Major trading hub on the Adriatic Sea.
- Florence: Important center for arts, ruled by the Medici family.
- Genoa: Access to trade routes, influencing economy.

Niccolò Machiavelli's "The Prince": Analysis of power and statecraft.
Observations on human nature: ungratefulness and greed.
Key points:
- Better to be feared than loved.
- Rulers should be decisive, maintaining control by any means.
- Emphasis on pragmatism: The end justifies the means.

Art Focus: Humanism and Realism: Portrayal of humanity and emotions.
New Techniques:
- Frescos: Painting on wet plaster for depth.
- Emphasis on realistic forms and human figures.
- Innovations in sculpture and architectural design.

Giovanni Pico della Mirandola: Philosopher recognizing universal truths in all traditions; influenced by various religious and philosophical schools.

Northern Humanism: Similar reverence for antiquity, with a focus on moral and religious reform.
Key figures: Desiderius Erasmus, Thomas More.

Rise of questions regarding the Catholic Church's doctrines by the late 1400s.
Emergence of Protestant reformers:
- Martin Luther: Insisted on faith and scripture alone.
- Jean Calvin: Promoted the absolute power of God in salvation.

Anamorphosis: Distorted images requiring specific viewpoints for clarity; exemplified in Holbein’s "The Ambassadors".

Four Innovations:
1. Oil paint and stretched canvases for richer colors.
2. Perspective to create the illusion of depth.
3. Chiaroscuro technique for light and shadow effects.
4. Pyramid configuration in portraits for three-dimensionality.

Tommaso Masaccio: Credited with early Renaissance painting techniques.
Donatello: Known for lifelike sculptures.
Sandro Botticelli: Vivid color and classical themes in works like "Primavera."
Leonardo da Vinci: Master of multiple disciplines with famous works like "Mona Lisa" and "The Last Supper."
Michelangelo: Renowned for sculptures like "David" and the Sistine Chapel frescoes.
Raphael: Celebrated for works like "School of Athens."

The Renaissance reflects a shift toward humanism, the exploration of individual potential, and the mastery of various artistic techniques that continue to influence the arts today.