Jus ad Bellum, Democratic Peace Theory and Liberal Theorists

Grotius and Laws of War

• Core Interest: Defining legitimate ways of conducting war, focusing on:

  • Who can be lawfully attacked.

  • Permissible and impermissible weapons.

  • Treatment of prisoners of war.

• Goal: To humanize warfare, distinguishing human conflict from animalistic fighting.

Combatants vs. Noncombatants

• Combatants: Easily identifiable as soldiers in uniform and carrying weapons.

• Noncombatants: Everyone else not directly participating in combat.

• Key Argument: Only combatants can be legally targeted in war; deliberately targeting noncombatants is immoral.

Civilian Casualties

• Collateral Damage: Death of civilians is not always a war crime.

• Legitimate Targets: Locations contributing to the enemy's war effort can be targeted, even if civilian deaths may occur.

Bakery vs. Weapons Factory: A Hypothetical

Scenario 1: The Baker

• A baker provides bread to a military base to feed soldiers.

• Question: Is it legitimate to target the bakery, potentially killing the baker?

• Grotius's Answer: No, it is not legitimate.

  • Reasoning: Providing food is a service to soldiers as human beings, not specifically as soldiers since all humans need to eat. Therefore, it is not directly part of the war effort.

Scenario 2: The Weapons Factory

• A civilian worker manufactures bullets in a weapons factory.

• Question: Is it legitimate to attack the factory, even if it means the worker is killed?

• Grotius's Answer: Yes, it is permissible.

  • Reasoning: The bullets are specifically for soldiers in their capacity as soldiers, which directly contributes to the war effort.

Important Note

• In both scenarios, the location is the target, not the individuals.

• Civilian deaths are considered a part of war, arising from attacks on legitimate targets.

Types of Weapons

• Limits: Weapons used in war should have limits to avoid unnecessary pain and indiscriminate effects.

• Legitimate Weapons: Should not cause unnecessary pain or be indiscriminate.

Barbed Spear Points

• Considered illegitimate by Grotius because they cause unnecessary pain upon removal after already serving their purpose.

• Example: Using a spear or arrow with a barb that causes additional injury when pulled out.

Dum Dum Bullets

• Modern example of an illegitimate weapon. These bullets flatten or fragment upon impact, causing excessive damage.

Indiscriminate Weapons

• Weapons that cannot distinguish between combatants and noncombatants.

Examples

• Poisoned Wells: Contaminating water sources during retreats, harming both soldiers and civilians.

• Anti-Personnel Landmines: Explode when stepped on, regardless of whether the person is a soldier, farmer, or child.

Treatment of Prisoners of War

• Once a soldier is captured, surrenders, or is disarmed, they become noncombatants.

• Principle: They should be treated as civilians and not be deliberately targeted.

Democratic Peace Theory (Immanuel Kant)

• Core Idea: Democratic (republican) countries are less likely to wage war against each other, even in an anarchic international system.

• Source: Immanuel Kant's "Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch" (1795).

Rationale (Kant)

• Citizens in a democracy bear the costs of war (fighting, funding, rebuilding, debt), so they are less inclined to initiate conflicts.

• Rulers who are not citizens and do not bear these costs are more likely to engage in war for amusement or personal gain.

Expansion by Michael Doyle

• Empirical Testing: Doyle empirically tested Kant's democratic peace theory, resulting in significant literature.

• Probability, Not Guarantee: War between democracies is very unlikely, but not impossible.

• Democracies Still Fight Wars: Democracies engage in conflicts, but rarely against other democracies.

Explanations for Democratic Peace

1. Political Culture

• Democracies resolve internal disputes through courts, elections, and discussion rather than violence.

• This culture of non-violent dispute resolution extends to international relations with other democracies.

• Trust and established processes make democracies more likely to resolve disagreements peacefully.

• Democracies are less likely to trust non-democracies, making violence more likely.

2. Political Structure

• Democratic structures make it difficult for leaders to unilaterally start wars against other democracies.

• Multiple checks and balances (cabinet, party caucus, parliament, public opinion, courts) prevent rash decisions.

• Attacking a non-democracy may be easier to justify, but attacking another democracy faces significant resistance.

Caveats (Kant & Doyle)

• Existing democracies should not impose democracy on other societies.

• Imposing democracy can lead to problems and is termed "liberal imperialism."

Critiques of Democratic Peace Theory

1. Poorly Operationalized Variables

• Challenge: Defining and measuring democracy is difficult.

• Example: Germany (non-democracy to democracy in a decade post-WWII) vs. Britain (centuries-long evolution).

Impact on Empirical Testing

• Strict definitions find no cases of democracies at war with each other.

• Broad definitions identify some exceptions (e.g., US Civil War, WWI).

2. Limited Number of Democracies Over Time

• Argument: Historical scarcity of democracies explains lack of wars between them.

• Rebuttal: Criticism weakens over time as democracies become more numerous and neighboring, yet still avoid conflict.

3. Hegemonic Stability Theory

• Argument: Peace results from a hegemonic power (Britain, then the US) enforcing order among lesser states.

• Rebuttal:

  • Democratic peace persisted through hegemonic transitions (Britain to US).

  • Theory doesn't explain why hegemons only impose order among democracies.

Liberal Theories: Keohane and Nye

Power and Interdependence (Keohane & Nye)

• Central Argument: Growing interdependence among countries reduces the likelihood of war.

Types of Interdependence

• Simple Interdependence: Countries mutually trade goods and services.

• Complex Interdependence: Builds upon simple interdependence and encompasses a deeper relationship.

Elements of Complex Interdependence

• Trade leads to political facilitation of trade.

• Movement of people (business, tourism) fosters relationships.

• Cultural exchanges enhance understanding and ties.

• Close military ties develop to protect the overall relationship.

Examples

• North America

• Western Europe

• Global Trend: These processes are ongoing in many parts of the world.

Regime Theory (Keohane)

• Regime Definition: An entity (institution, idea, practice) that persists even after the conditions that created it have disappeared.

Example: The Bretton Woods System

• Created post-WWII by the US, establishing structures like the WTO, IMF, and World Bank using it's economic, political, military, and cultural power.

• Despite the declining relative power of the U.S. , these institutions continue to function because they are recognized valuable by other countries.

• Regimes fill a need beyond their initial context.

Soft Power (Nye)

• Theorist: Joseph Nye

• Concept: "Soft power" contrasts with "hard power" (economic and military resources).

Elements of Soft Power

• American culture (movies, music).

• Business practices and American capitalism.

• Democratic values.

Function of Soft Power

• Nye argued the U.S. had cultural and ideological resources that gave it power despite it's decreasing hard power after WWII.

• These elements are globally recognized and admired, therefore make the U.S. influential in the global environment.

Key Point

• Synergy: Soft power and hard power work together.

• Destiny: This combination ensures the U.S. continues to be a leading great power.