MACROS

  1. Define matter: Anything that occupies space and has mass, composed of elements



  2. Define atom: Building blocks of all matter



  3. Define element: Pure substances, composed of atoms…96% of body = CHON (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen)



  4. Atomic structure:  Describe the subatomic parts of an atom, including their charges and position in the atom


    1. Nucleus = core


a)     Protons = Large, + Charge



b)     Neutrons = Large, Neutral



  1. Electron cloud = Small, - Charge



  2. Define atomic number: # of Protons (ID tag)



  3. Define mass number: Protons + Neutrons (nucleus)




  4. Define isotope: Same element, different # neuron (higher mass)




  5. Define valence shell electron: Located in outermost shell/orbits. Allows bonds to form




  6. What is the “Octet Rule”?: Electron pairing. Ideally 8 electrons in valence shell





  7. Chemical Bonds:  Define molecule versus compound and explain how chemical bonds are formed


    1. Define molecule:
      2 or more atoms bound (O2, H2O)




    2. Define compound:
      A type of molecule, atoms of different elements (NaCl)




    3. Ionic Bonds


      1. Description:

 Involve electron transfer to form ions (charged particles)
Lose electron = + charged cation
Gain electron = - anion





  1. Characteristics:
    Weak in fluids, readily dissociate







  2. Covalent Bonds


    1. Description
      Involves electron sharing

Equal sharing = non-polar covalent
Unequal sharing = polar covalent
*like dissolves like*




  1. Characteristics
    Strong bonds






  2. Hydrogen Bonds


    1. Description
      Not a bond, but an attractive
      Slight - end attracted to Slight + force





    2. Characteristics
      create cohesion
      surface tension



  3. Chemical Reactions:  Explain the three major types of chemical reactions: synthesis, decomposition, and oxidation-reduction


    1. Synthesis:
      To create, anabolism





    2. Decomposition:
      To break, catabolism





    3. Redox: Commonly involves oxygen, important for metabolic reactions


      1. Oxidation – loss of electrons





      2. Reduction – gain of electrons






    4. Factors that Affect Reaction Rates:


      1. Temperature – higher = faster




      2. Particle size – higher = slower




      3. Reactant concentration – a lot to work w/ = faster




      4. Presence of catalysts – increase reaction rates
        present = faster
        (enzymes = biological catalysts)



  4. Biochemistry:


    1. Inorganic Molecules: Explain how inorganic substances like water and salts are crucial for survival


      1. Water:


a)      Big cellular component (60%)


b)     High heat capacity


c)     High heat of vaporization


d)      Universal (polar) solvent


e)      Transports biochemicals


f)       Lubricates


g)      reactive



  1. Salts


a)     Define salts: ionic compounds w/o H+ and OH-




b)     What are ions/ electrolytes? Electrically charged atoms/molecules




c)     Why do we need ions/ electrolytes?

nerve impulses, muscle contractions, oxygen transport






  1. Acids, Bases and Buffer Systems:  Define pH and differentiate between acidity and alkalinity


a)     Define pH: concentration of [H+] in system




b)     Define acidic pH: high H+ ions = low pH (pH 0-6)
if H+ > OH- = Acidic



c)     Define neutral pH: = H+ Ions = OH-, pH – 7




d)     Define basic or alkaline pH: High OH- = High pH (8 – 14)
if H+ < OH- = Basic



e)     What is normal blood pH for humans?
pH 4 ( pH = 7.35 – 7.45 )


f)      Define acidosis: blood pH < pH 7.35 (low pH = high [H+])




g)     Define alkalosis: blood pH > pH 7.45 (high pH = low [H+])




h)     Define buffer: 
Chemicals that prevent pH fluctuations (resists pH change)



i)       Bicarbonate buffer system: Describe the carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system

Carbonic Acid (H2CO3) à Bicarbonate Ions (HCO3-) + H+





(1)   If we fall into acidosis, to maintain pH homeostasis:
pH must be raised
HCO3- binds H+ to form H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
(remove H+ from system)





(2)   If we rise into alkalosis, to maintain pH homeostasis:

pH must be lowered
Carbonic acid dissociates into bicarbonate ions & H+
(adds H+ into system)














  1. Organic Molecules: The 4 Major Macromolecules/ Biochemicals 
    Describe the structure and function of each class of organic compound


    1. Define polymerization:  
      Poly = Many
      Mer = Units

Process of synthesizing long chains/networks to form macromolecules


  1. Define dehydration synthesis:
    Removal of H2O to bond monomers to each other.




  2. Define hydrolysis:
    Lysis = Break/Destroy
    Add H2O to break polymers



  3. Carbohydrates


a)     Function: Energy source, provides SOME cellular structure.




b)     Monomers: Monosaccharides or Simple Sugars


(1)   Pentose sugars:  C5H10O4



(a)    Deoxyribose



(b)    Ribose



(2)   Hexose sugars:  C6H12O6



(a)    Glucose



(b)    Fructose



(c)    Galactose



c)     Dimers:  Disaccharides


(1)    Sucrose


(2)    Lactose


(3)    Maltose




d)     Polymers:  Polysaccharides

(1)    Glycogen – w/in animal cells, energy source


(2)    Starch – w/in plant cells, nutrient


(3)    Cellulose w/in plant cells, cell wall structure



  1. Lipids:  There are 4 major classes of lipids


a)     Triglycerides

(1)   Function:
Energy source/storage, insulation/protection



(2)   Structure:
Glycerol + 3 fatty acid tails



(3)   Saturated versus unsaturated:

 Saturated – no double bonds, solid @ room temp, “bad fats” (raise cholesterol)
Unsaturated – have double bonds, liquid @ room temp,



b)     Phospholipids


(1)   Function: MAJOR cell membrane component



(2)   Structure:
Polar head = hydrophilic, phosphate containing group

Non-polar tail = hydrophobic, 2 fatty acid tails




c)     Steroids

(1)   Functions:
Cell membrane structure
Hormones (chemical messengers)



(2)   Structure:
4 interconnected carbon rings



d)     Eicosanoids

(1)   Function: chemical messaging


(2)   Structure: Formed from arachidonic acid


(3)   Examples:


(a)   Prostaglandins
Hormone, cause contractions



(b)   Leukotrienes
Inflammatory chemicals



  1. Proteins


a)     Functions:


(1)    Structural (e.g., keratin)



(2)    Transport (e.g., hemoglobin)



(3)    Movement (e.g., actin, myosin)



(4)    Defense (e.g., antibodies)



(5)    Catalysts (e.g., enzymes)


b)     Monomers:  Amino Acids

(1)   Acid group – COOH, carboxyl group



(2)   Amine group – NH2, amine group



(3)   R group – “rest of the molecule”





c)     Dimers:  Peptides


d)     Polymers:  Polypeptides



e)     Protein Structure:  Protein Folding


(1)   Primary structure
long chain of amino acids



(2)   Secondary structure


(a)   Helix – coil/spiral



(b)   Pleated sheet – accordion folds



(3)   Tertiary structure
Secondary structure folded onto each other.



(4)   Quaternary structure
Tertiary structures combined w/ each other




f)      Protein denaturation: Protein unfolding/protein death


(1)    Extreme pH


(2)    Extreme temp


(3)    Radiation


(4)     Harsh chemicals



g)     Enzymes: All enzymes are proteins, but not all proteins are enzymes!


(1)   Functions:
Catalysts (increase reaction rates)
Regulate metabolic reactions
(typically end in “-ase”)


(2)   Mechanism:
Have active sites that bind substrates
Allow new products to form

Activated by:

Cofactors = metals (iron, zinc)

Coenzymes = vitamins



(3)   Lowering activation energy requirements:
Energy required to allows products to form, IS LOWER
Faster reaction rate




  1. Nucleic Acids


a)     Monomers:  Nucleotides

(1)   Sugar group:  Pentose sugars


(2)   Phosphate group


(3)   Base

(a)   Adenine

(b)   Thymine

(c)   Guanine

(d)   Cytosine

(e)   Uracil






b)     Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

(1)   Structure:  Double-stranded helix


(a)   Sugar: Deoxyribose



(b)   Paired Bases:

                                                                                                                        (i)          A-T


                                                                                                                       (ii)          G-C


(2)   Function:
Information to sustain life, molecular code for protein synthesis




c)     Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

(1)   Structure:  Single stranded


(a)   Sugar:



(b)   Bases:

                                                                                                                        (i)          A

                                                                                                                       (ii)          U

                                                                                                                     (iii)          G

                                                                                                                     (iv)          C


(2)   Function:
Carries out code for protein synthesis















  1. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

a)     Function: Energy source



b)     Structure:


(1)   Adenine


(2)   Ribose


(3)   3 phosphate groups (second & third phosphate groups contain high energy bonds!)


c)     ATP Synthesis
Dehydration synthesis reaction, store energy






d)     ATP Hydrolysis

Decomposition reaction, derive energy from breaking bonds