MACROS

  1. Define matter: Anything that occupies space and has mass, composed of elements


  2. Define atom: Building blocks of all matter


  3. Define element: Pure substances, composed of atoms…96% of body = CHON (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen)


  4. Atomic structure:  Describe the subatomic parts of an atom, including their charges and position in the atom

    1. Nucleus = core

a)     Protons = Large, + Charge


b)     Neutrons = Large, Neutral

  1. Electron cloud = Small, - Charge


  2. Define atomic number: # of Protons (ID tag)


  3. Define mass number: Protons + Neutrons (nucleus)



  4. Define isotope: Same element, different # neuron (higher mass)



  5. Define valence shell electron: Located in outermost shell/orbits. Allows bonds to form



  6. What is the “Octet Rule”?: Electron pairing. Ideally 8 electrons in valence shell




  7. Chemical Bonds:  Define molecule versus compound and explain how chemical bonds are formed

    1. Define molecule:
      2 or more atoms bound (O2, H2O)



    2. Define compound:
      A type of molecule, atoms of different elements (NaCl)



    3. Ionic Bonds

      1. Description:

 Involve electron transfer to form ions (charged particles)
Lose electron = + charged cation
Gain electron = - anion



  1. Characteristics:
    Weak in fluids, readily dissociate






  2. Covalent Bonds

    1. Description
      Involves electron sharing

Equal sharing = non-polar covalent
Unequal sharing = polar covalent
*like dissolves like*



  1. Characteristics
    Strong bonds





  2. Hydrogen Bonds

    1. Description
      Not a bond, but an attractive
      Slight - end attracted to Slight + force




    2. Characteristics
      create cohesion
      surface tension


  3. Chemical Reactions:  Explain the three major types of chemical reactions: synthesis, decomposition, and oxidation-reduction

    1. Synthesis:
      To create, anabolism




    2. Decomposition:
      To break, catabolism




    3. Redox: Commonly involves oxygen, important for metabolic reactions

      1. Oxidation – loss of electrons




      2. Reduction – gain of electrons





    4. Factors that Affect Reaction Rates:

      1. Temperature – higher = faster



      2. Particle size – higher = slower



      3. Reactant concentration – a lot to work w/ = faster



      4. Presence of catalysts – increase reaction rates
        present = faster
        (enzymes = biological catalysts)


  4. Biochemistry:

    1. Inorganic Molecules: Explain how inorganic substances like water and salts are crucial for survival

      1. Water:

a)      Big cellular component (60%)

b)     High heat capacity

c)     High heat of vaporization

d)      Universal (polar) solvent

e)      Transports biochemicals

f)       Lubricates

g)      reactive


  1. Salts

a)     Define salts: ionic compounds w/o H+ and OH-



b)     What are ions/ electrolytes? Electrically charged atoms/molecules



c)     Why do we need ions/ electrolytes?

nerve impulses, muscle contractions, oxygen transport




  1. Acids, Bases and Buffer Systems:  Define pH and differentiate between acidity and alkalinity

a)     Define pH: concentration of [H+] in system



b)     Define acidic pH: high H+ ions = low pH (pH 0-6)
if H+ > OH- = Acidic


c)     Define neutral pH: = H+ Ions = OH-, pH – 7



d)     Define basic or alkaline pH: High OH- = High pH (8 – 14)
if H+ < OH- = Basic


e)     What is normal blood pH for humans?
pH 4 ( pH = 7.35 – 7.45 )

f)      Define acidosis: blood pH < pH 7.35 (low pH = high [H+])



g)     Define alkalosis: blood pH > pH 7.45 (high pH = low [H+])



h)     Define buffer: 
Chemicals that prevent pH fluctuations (resists pH change)


i)       Bicarbonate buffer system: Describe the carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system

Carbonic Acid (H2CO3) à Bicarbonate Ions (HCO3-) + H+





(1)   If we fall into acidosis, to maintain pH homeostasis:
pH must be raised
HCO3- binds H+ to form H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
(remove H+ from system)





(2)   If we rise into alkalosis, to maintain pH homeostasis:

pH must be lowered
Carbonic acid dissociates into bicarbonate ions & H+
(adds H+ into system)












  1. Organic Molecules: The 4 Major Macromolecules/ Biochemicals 
    Describe the structure and function of each class of organic compound

    1. Define polymerization:  
      Poly = Many
      Mer = Units

Process of synthesizing long chains/networks to form macromolecules

  1. Define dehydration synthesis:
    Removal of H2O to bond monomers to each other.



  2. Define hydrolysis:
    Lysis = Break/Destroy
    Add H2O to break polymers


  3. Carbohydrates

a)     Function: Energy source, provides SOME cellular structure.



b)     Monomers: Monosaccharides or Simple Sugars

(1)   Pentose sugars:  C5H10O4


(a)    Deoxyribose


(b)    Ribose

(2)   Hexose sugars:  C6H12O6


(a)    Glucose


(b)    Fructose


(c)    Galactose


c)     Dimers:  Disaccharides

(1)    Sucrose

(2)    Lactose

(3)    Maltose



d)     Polymers:  Polysaccharides

(1)    Glycogen – w/in animal cells, energy source

(2)    Starch – w/in plant cells, nutrient

(3)    Cellulose w/in plant cells, cell wall structure


  1. Lipids:  There are 4 major classes of lipids

a)     Triglycerides

(1)   Function:
Energy source/storage, insulation/protection


(2)   Structure:
Glycerol + 3 fatty acid tails


(3)   Saturated versus unsaturated:

 Saturated – no double bonds, solid @ room temp, “bad fats” (raise cholesterol)
Unsaturated – have double bonds, liquid @ room temp,


b)     Phospholipids

(1)   Function: MAJOR cell membrane component


(2)   Structure:
Polar head = hydrophilic, phosphate containing group

Non-polar tail = hydrophobic, 2 fatty acid tails



c)     Steroids

(1)   Functions:
Cell membrane structure
Hormones (chemical messengers)


(2)   Structure:
4 interconnected carbon rings


d)     Eicosanoids

(1)   Function: chemical messaging

(2)   Structure: Formed from arachidonic acid

(3)   Examples:

(a)   Prostaglandins
Hormone, cause contractions


(b)   Leukotrienes
Inflammatory chemicals

  1. Proteins

a)     Functions:

(1)    Structural (e.g., keratin)


(2)    Transport (e.g., hemoglobin)


(3)    Movement (e.g., actin, myosin)


(4)    Defense (e.g., antibodies)


(5)    Catalysts (e.g., enzymes)

b)     Monomers:  Amino Acids

(1)   Acid group – COOH, carboxyl group


(2)   Amine group – NH2, amine group


(3)   R group – “rest of the molecule”



c)     Dimers:  Peptides

d)     Polymers:  Polypeptides


e)     Protein Structure:  Protein Folding

(1)   Primary structure
long chain of amino acids

(2)   Secondary structure

(a)   Helix – coil/spiral


(b)   Pleated sheet – accordion folds

(3)   Tertiary structure
Secondary structure folded onto each other.


(4)   Quaternary structure
Tertiary structures combined w/ each other



f)      Protein denaturation: Protein unfolding/protein death

(1)    Extreme pH

(2)    Extreme temp

(3)    Radiation

(4)     Harsh chemicals


g)     Enzymes: All enzymes are proteins, but not all proteins are enzymes!

(1)   Functions:
Catalysts (increase reaction rates)
Regulate metabolic reactions
(typically end in “-ase”)

(2)   Mechanism:
Have active sites that bind substrates
Allow new products to form

Activated by:

Cofactors = metals (iron, zinc)

Coenzymes = vitamins


(3)   Lowering activation energy requirements:
Energy required to allows products to form, IS LOWER
Faster reaction rate


  1. Nucleic Acids

a)     Monomers:  Nucleotides

(1)   Sugar group:  Pentose sugars

(2)   Phosphate group

(3)   Base

(a)   Adenine

(b)   Thymine

(c)   Guanine

(d)   Cytosine

(e)   Uracil





b)     Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

(1)   Structure:  Double-stranded helix

(a)   Sugar: Deoxyribose


(b)   Paired Bases:

                                                                                                                        (i)          A-T

                                                                                                                       (ii)          G-C

(2)   Function:
Information to sustain life, molecular code for protein synthesis



c)     Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

(1)   Structure:  Single stranded

(a)   Sugar:


(b)   Bases:

                                                                                                                        (i)          A

                                                                                                                       (ii)          U

                                                                                                                     (iii)          G

                                                                                                                     (iv)          C

(2)   Function:
Carries out code for protein synthesis



  1. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

a)     Function: Energy source


b)     Structure:

(1)   Adenine

(2)   Ribose

(3)   3 phosphate groups (second & third phosphate groups contain high energy bonds!)

c)     ATP Synthesis
Dehydration synthesis reaction, store energy




d)     ATP Hydrolysis

Decomposition reaction, derive energy from breaking bonds