Developmental Gains and Losses During Parenthood

Authors: Elizabeth M. Westrupp, Jacqui Macdonald, Subhadra Evans
The onset of parenthood significantly alters adult functioning.
It enhances the potential for both developmental losses and gains.
This is framed in the context of increased parental responsibilities and limited access to resources.
The article integrates Baltes’ lifespan development theory and Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model.
Empirical evidence is summarized regarding the normative transition to parenthood and the non-normative event of COVID-19.
Parents’ experiences of developmental loss and gain are deeply interconnected, influenced by various individual and environmental factors.
The findings imply essential considerations for the design of parent prevention/intervention programs.

Deakin University, Centre for Social and Early Emotional Development, School of Psychology, Victoria, Australia
Judith Lumley Centre, La Trobe University, Victoria, Australia
Corresponding author: Westrupp, Elizabeth M. (elizabeth.westrupp@deakin.edu.au)

Parenthood is marked by significant transitions in adulthood, leading to new roles, identity, knowledge, and skills.
Changes occur in relationships with peers, family, couples, and work, involving compromises and sacrifices.
These changes yield both gains and losses, and are analyzed through:
- Baltes’ lifespan development theory: Challenges the notion of a linear trajectory of gains in childhood versus losses in aging.
- Development is multidirectional throughout the lifespan.
- Optimal development necessitates maximizing gains and utilizing compensation processes to mitigate losses.
- Compensation processes: Functional responses to losses of resources that may involve changing goals or strategies (e.g., prioritizing fewer social connections for time management).
- Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model: Human development results from complex interactions between genetic/biological and social/environmental influences.
- Parents' cognitive, socioemotional, and physical functioning is linked to their ecological context (microsystem, exosystem, macrosystem).
- Stressful events can destabilize individual development (chronosystem) and influence coping capacities.
- Personal developmental history and available resources determine the ability to manage transitions and stressors, affecting gains and losses.

Transitioning to parenthood is profoundly life-altering, introducing new experiences alongside significant stressors:
- Parents must rapidly adjust to roles in child care while renegotiating past life parameters.
Stressors include:
- Sleep deprivation, physical recovery (mothers post-birth), and reduced protective factors across social and recreational activities.
Cognitive Changes in Parents:
- Evidence of 'baby brain' in mothers, where cognitive abilities decline during and post-pregnancy.
- A meta-analysis noted decreased cognitive functioning and gray matter volume in pregnant women.
- Fathers experience declines in testosterone, influencing nurturing behavior and increased depression risk, but outcomes can be heterogeneous.

Significant emotional investment in child-rearing aligns with evolutionary survival imperatives.
While neuropsychological rewards arise from parent-child bonding, declines in relationship quality can occur among couples.
Research shows couple relationship satisfaction typically drops during the transition but tends to recover over time.
Environmental influences, such as traditional gender roles, can place additional pressures on couples, especially mothers who may give up careers, leading to dissatisfaction.
- Conversely, fathers often see employment gains linked to increased working hours.
The dynamics of managing work-family responsibilities can result in both positive and negative outcomes for mental health and parenting practices.

The pandemic serves as a non-normative stressor, impacting parents disproportionately by compromising their resources and support systems.
- Lockdowns resulted in limited activities and social contacts, adversely affecting mental health and well-being.
In parallel, some parents reported benefits from spending more time with family during the lockdowns.
The research finds a correlation between resource availability and better management of parental stress, with a focus on promoting resilience.

Parenthood brings both losses and gains within its growth-oriented framework, significantly influenced by individual and environmental factors.
Evidence suggests systemic interventions are necessary to aid parents during normative and non-normative transitions, identifying pivotal factors for resilience and support needed to cushion impacts of stressors and facilitate growth.