18th and 19th Century liberalism

Origins of 19th Century Liberalism

  • The roots of liberalism emerged from two distinct traditions of political thought:

    • English Tradition

      • John Locke

      • Adam Smith

    • French Tradition

      • Jean Jacques Rousseau

John Locke

  • Proposed the contract theory of government.

  • Advocated for limited constitutional government.

  • Envisioned a civil society composed of free men, equal under the rule of law, sharing respect for each other's rights, without a common purpose.

  • Developed the doctrine of natural rights, emphasizing:

    • The connection between private property and individual liberty.

Adam Smith

  • Authored Wealth of Nations, introducing an economic dimension to liberalism.

  • Merged Locke’s civil society concepts with economic theories.

  • Advocated for free trade economics.

  • Noted the presence of the “invisible hand”, suggesting that a benevolent deity governed a universe that maximized human happiness.

  • Observed that markets could function effectively without interference, positing this to be the best management of people's affairs and a means of fostering prosperity.

Pillars of Capitalism

  • Essential components identified by Smith:

    • Profit Motive

    • Competition

    • Freedom to Buy and Sell

    • Private Property

    • Laissez-faire policies

Non-European Sources of Liberal Thought

Iroquois Confederacy

  • Exemplified a society founded on egalitarian principles:

    • Consent

    • Equality

    • Free Speech

    • Collective Good

Classical Liberalism in England

  • Critical pieces of legislation during this period:

    1. Catholic Emancipation Act (1829)

    2. Reform Act (1832)

    3. Factory Act (1833)

    4. Repeal of the Corn Laws (1846)

Classical Liberalism in France

  • French liberals faced significant dilemmas:

    • How to properly ‘end’ the French Revolution?

    • How to balance order and liberty in a nation fractured by civil strife?

  • This context necessitated a reevaluation of liberal principles.

Jean Jacques Rousseau

  • His seminal work Social Contract articulates a theory of the “general will”, offering an alternative perspective on the origins of Liberalism.

  • Emphasized that humans must solve societal issues through their ability to choose how to live peacefully.

  • Notable quotation: “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.”

    • Suggests that humans are born with freedom, but societal progress often results in subservience.

Rousseau & Totalitarianism

  • Concept of the “General Will”:

    • Advocated a strong and direct form of democracy, potentially viable only in a relatively small state.

    • Raises the question of whether Rousseau is endorsing a form of collective tyranny.

    • Rousseau criticized the notion of representative democracy.

“Moderate” Liberalism

  1. Sovereignty of People:

    • Government should be supported by the organized consent of key segments of the community.

    • Proposed extending suffrage to men of property while excluding the working class.

  2. Preferred a constitutional monarchy as optimal government.

  3. Valued liberty over equality, reflecting a belief in:

    • Human self-governance and self-control.

    • Importance of freedom of the press and right to assembly.

  4. Advocated for the establishment of written constitutions.

Economic Policies

  1. Advocated for:

    • Laissez-faire economy

    • Free trade

    • Lower tariffs

    • Opposed the right of the working class to form unions.

  2. Beliefs about societal progress:

    • General advancement of humanity would arise from increasing wealth, scientific advancements, and innovations.

  3. Viewed religious institutions and aristocracy as impediments to societal progress.

  4. Advocated for orderly reforms through legislative processes rather than revolutions.

  5. Demonstrated a clear aversion to wars, conquests, and military expenditures.

  6. Strongly opposed the concept of revolution.

Horrors of French Revolution

  • Edmund Burke:

    • Regarded as the Father of the modern conservative movement.

    • Critically observed the excesses of the French Revolution.

    • Promoted the idea that change should be gradual and carefully monitored by authorities to respect tradition and law.

Challenges to Liberalism

  • Sources of opposition included:

    • Conservative Upper Class.

    • Emerging Sozialism and Marxism.

    • Organized Religions.

    • Militarism and Imperialism.

    • Economic upheavals experienced during:

      • Irish Potato Famine (1845 – 1852).

      • Great Depressions (1873 – 1896).