Nationalism in India – Concise Exam Notes

Emergence of Indian Nationalism

Modern Indian nationalism grew out of the anti-colonial struggle. Diverse groups discovered unity through a shared sense of oppression under British rule, though each experienced colonialism differently. Congress, especially under Mahatma Gandhi, attempted to weld these groups into one broad movement, despite recurring conflicts.

First World War and New Politics after $1919$

The war raised defence spending, taxes and prices, causing hardship; forced recruitment and post-war famine–influenza deaths (about $12$–$13$ million) deepened anger. Gandhi returned in $1915$ and introduced satyagraha—non-violent resistance based on truth and moral persuasion. Local satyagrahas at Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad proved its effectiveness.

Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh and Nationwide Unrest

The Rowlatt Act $1919$ authorised detention without trial. Gandhi called a hartal on $6$ April $1919$; mass protests led to brutal repression culminating in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre on $13$ April $1919$. Martial law and atrocities followed, but the movement revealed nationwide potential.

Khilafat Issue and Non-Cooperation Movement

Muslim leaders (Ali brothers) formed a Khilafat Committee $1919$ to defend the Ottoman Caliph. Gandhi linked this to swaraj, persuading Congress at Calcutta (Sept $1920$) and Nagpur (Dec $1920$) to launch Non-Cooperation. Programme: surrender titles, boycott councils, courts, schools, cloth and goods; escalate to civil disobedience if repressed. Began January $1921$.

Course of Non-Cooperation

In cities students, teachers, lawyers resigned; foreign cloth imports fell (from Rs $102$ crore to Rs $57$ crore $1921$–$1922$). The movement slowed because khadi was costlier and alternative institutions were scarce.

In countryside, Awadh peasants under Baba Ramchandra fought high rents and begar; tribals in Gudem Hills, led by Alluri Sitaram Raju, waged guerrilla revolt against forest restrictions; Assam tea workers left plantations seeking “Gandhi Raj.” Violent incidents like Chauri Chaura (Feb $1922$) led Gandhi to suspend the movement.

Shift to Constitutional Politics and Simon Commission

After withdrawal, leaders such as C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party to enter councils (Government of India Act $1919$). Economic depression and all-white Simon Commission ($1928$) provoked nationwide “Go Back Simon” protests. Lahore Congress (Dec $1929$) under Jawaharlal Nehru adopted the goal of $Purna\, Swaraj$ and fixed $26$ January $1930$ as Independence Day.

Salt March and Civil Disobedience Movement

Gandhi’s letter to Viceroy Irwin (Jan $1930$) listed $11$ demands; chief was abolition of salt tax. On $12$ March–$6$ April $1930$ Gandhi marched $240$ miles Sabarmati to Dandi, broke the salt law and launched Civil Disobedience. People now not only boycotted but openly violated laws: making salt, refusing revenue, resigning village posts, entering reserved forests. Government repression (over $100{,}000$ arrests) followed. Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March $1931$) ended the first phase; talks failed in London; movement resumed $1932$ but petered out by $1934$.

Social Bases and Limits of Civil Disobedience

Rich peasants (Patidars, Jats) sought revenue reduction; disappointed when rates stayed. Poor tenants wanted rent remission; Congress avoided ‘no-rent’ demands. Business groups (FICCI) funded the movement hoping for free trade but later feared radicalism. Industrial workers joined selectively; Congress kept labour issues subordinate. Women participated in large numbers, yet leadership roles remained symbolic.

Dalits, led by B.R. Ambedkar, demanded separate electorates (Depressed Classes Association $1930$). Gandhi opposed this, fasting until the Poona Pact ($1932$) substituted reserved seats within joint electorates. Many dalits stayed aloof. Muslim response was cool after mid-$1920$s; fears of Hindu dominance and failure to agree on political safeguards widened the rift, voiced by leaders like M.A. Jinnah and poet-philosopher Iqbal.

Cultural Symbols and Collective Belonging

Nationalism was reinforced by cultural projects: the image of Bharat Mata (first by Bankim Chandra, popularised by Abanindranath Tagore), collection of folklore (Tagore, Natesa Sastri), tricolour flags (Swadeshi, later Gandhi’s spinning-wheel flag) and rewritten histories glorifying ancient India. These symbols fostered unity but sometimes alienated non-Hindus.

Continuing Struggle

Tensions between unity and diversity produced cycles of mass action and division, yet the shared objective of ending colonial rule persisted, leading eventually to later movements such as Quit India ($1942$).