Development and Learning
Unit 3: Development and Learning
Module 3.1: Themes and Methods in Developmental Psychology
Developmental Psychology
Studies human growth across the whole lifespan.
Key Definitions:
Cross-Sectional Study: Research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.
Longitudinal Study: Research that follows and retests the same people over time.
Purpose of Studies:
Investigate the influence of Nature vs. Nurture on development.
Explore the interaction between biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.
Continuity and Stages in Development:
Nurture Perspective: Development is a slow and continuous shaping process.
Nature Perspective: Development follows genetically predisposed stages.
Not commonly viewed in stages today, but these concepts remain relevant.
Stability and Change in Traits:
Some traits (e.g., temperament) persist throughout life.
Other traits (e.g., attitudes) are less stable.
Stability provides a sense of identity, while change allows for adaptation and growth from experiences.
Module 3.2: Physical Development Across the Lifespan
3.2a: Prenatal, Infancy, and Childhood
Prenatal Development Phases:
Zygote: Formation upon fertilization.
Embryo: Early stage of development.
Fetus: Later phase capable of surviving outside the womb by 6 months.
Teratogens: Agents that can harm the embryo or fetus during development (e.g., chemicals, viruses).
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): Physical and cognitive deficits in children caused by heavy drinking during pregnancy.
Impact of Stress: Can trigger early delivery.
The Competent Newborn:
Automatic Reflexes:
Rooting Reflex: Baby turns mouth towards the source of a cheek touch.
Sucking Reflex: Baby sucks on anything placed in the mouth.
Startle Reflex: Arms and legs spring out; crying occurs.
Grasping Reflex: Baby grips objects touching their palm.
Habituation: Decreased responsiveness with repeated stimulation; interest wanes with familiarity.
Babies prefer sights and sounds that promote social responsiveness (e.g., turning heads to human voices, recognizing faces).
Maturation:
Biological growth processes enabling orderly behavior changes; relatively uninfluenced by experiences.
Typical sequence: standing, then walking; using nouns before verbs.
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs): Severe deprivation or abuse can slow development.
Maturation sets the basic course while experience adjusts it.
Brain Development:
Neuroconnections grow more numerous and complex; experiences trigger a pruning process.
Skills have critical periods: optimal exposure early in life produces normal development; “use it or lose it.”
Motor Development:
Fine motor (small muscles) and gross motor (large muscles) skills follow a universal pattern.
Example: rolling over before sitting up, grasping before manipulation.
Genetic factors guide motor development; about 50% of U.S. babies walk before one year.
Infant Memory:
Few or no conscious memories before age 5 due to immature brain structures (infantile amnesia).
Brains process information; those exposed to different languages as children can reacquire those sounds as adults.
Physical Development in Adolescence:
Adolescence: Transition from childhood to adulthood; lasts from puberty to independence.
Puberty: Period of sexual maturation; typically occurs between ages 9-16.
Timing of Development: Develops in a set pattern.
The Teenage Brain:
Brain undergoes a pruning process during adolescence for unused neural connections.
The prefrontal cortex develops, improving judgment and impulse control, but emotional regulation is still challenging due to lagging development compared to the limbic system.
Physical Development into Adulthood:
Difficult to generalize adult years; divisions include:
Emerging Adulthood: 18 to mid-20s
Early Adulthood: 20s to 30s
Middle Adulthood: Up to age 65
Late Adulthood: After age 65
Physical abilities start to decline slowly in the 20s.
Physical Changes in Middle Adulthood:
Physical vitality highly correlated with health and exercise habits, rather than strictly with age.
Menopause: Natural cessation of menstruation, also reflects biological changes in reproductive ability.
Men experience gradual declines in sperm count, testosterone levels and speed of reproductive functions.
Physical Changes in Late Adulthood:
Life expectancy has risen since 1950; women typically outlive men by approximately 4.7 years.
Death Deferral Phenomenon: Tendency for individuals to die soon after significant life milestones.
Declines in muscle strength, reaction time, stamina, and vision; weakened immune systems.
Exercise helps slow aging and stimulates neurogenesis.
Module 3.3: Gender and Sexual Orientation
Gender Development
Definitions:
Sex: Biologically influenced characteristics distinguishing males, females, and intersex individuals.
Gender: Attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that cultures associate with one's biological sex.
Prenatal Sexual Development:
6 weeks after conception, genes begin developing biological sex characteristics.
X Chromosome: Found in females (XX) and males (XY).
Y Chromosome: Activates testosterone production around 7 weeks, leading to male sex characteristics.
Estrogens: Contribute to the development of female sex characteristics.
Adolescent Sex Characteristics:
Puberty: Rapid sexual maturation period marking significant male/female differences.
Primary Sex Characteristics: Body structures essential for sexual reproduction.
Secondary Sex Characteristics: Non-reproductive sexual traits.
Spermarche: First ejaculation.
Menarche: First menstruation.
Sexual Development Variations:
Intersex: Individuals with both male and female sexual characteristics at birth.
Klinefelter Syndrome: Genetic males with two or more X chromosomes alongside a Y chromosome; leads to sterility and small testicular size.
Turner Syndrome: Genetic females with only one X chromosome; results in sterility and absence of menstruation and breast development.
Nurture of Gender:
Role: Expectations defining behaviors for specific positions.
Gender Role: Behaviors and traits attributed to males and females, varying by culture and region.
Gender Identity: Personal understanding of being male, female, or a blend thereof, developed through social learning.
Gender Typing: Acquisition of traditional masculine or feminine traits.
Androgyny: Melding psychological traits from both genders.
Similarities and Differences: Females:
Develop puberty earlier.
Express emotions more openly.
Greater risk of depression or anxiety (twice as likely).
Increased tendency toward eating disorders (ten times more likely).
More interdependent, form smaller social groups with intimate conversations.
Similarities and Differences: Males:
Four times more likely to die by suicide, abuse substances, or develop alcohol disorders.
More perceived power and stronger negotiation skills.
Higher rates of violent crime.
More independent; prefer competition over intimacy in discussions.
Male Answer Syndrome: Tendency to fabricate answers rather than admit lack of knowledge.
Gender Differences in Social Power and Connectedness:
Most pronounced during adolescence and early adulthood; tend to subside by age 50.
Aggression Types:
Aggression: Any behavior (physical or verbal) intended to harm others.
Relational Aggression: Intended to harm social relations or standing (more common among females, e.g., gossip).
Sexuality:
Thoughts, feelings, and actions related to physical attraction.
Asexual: Having no sexual attraction towards others (approx. 1% of the population).
Psychology of Sex:
Both genders display arousal in response to erotic material; habituation may occur with repeated exposure.
Effects of exposure to sexual content include:
Increased sexual activity.
Normalization of rape beliefs.
Decreased satisfaction in relationships.
Desensitization to healthy sexuality.
Module 3.4: Development Across Lifespan
Freud's Stages of Development:
Oral: Birth to 2 years.
Anal: 18 months to 3 years.
Phallic: 3 to 6 years.
Latency: 6 to puberty.
Genital: Puberty onwards.
Freud's Developmental Stages in Detail:
Oral Stage (0-2 years): Focus on the mouth, developing pleasure principle.
Anal Stage (18 months - 3 years): Centered around toilet training and elimination functions.
Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Awareness between genders; pleasure centers on genitals.
Latency Stage (6-puberty): Sexual thoughts repressed, focus shifts to social and intellectual development.
Genital Stage (puberty-adulthood): Sexual desire returns, relationships develop, potential for rebellion.
Erikson’s Theory of Development: Eight stages, each marked by a psychosocial crisis that shapes personality:
Trust vs. Mistrust: First year, forming trust by meeting needs.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Second year, autonomy fostered through toilet training.
Initiative vs. Guilt: Aged 3-6, independence versus being overly controlled.
Industry vs. Inferiority: Aged 6 to puberty; functions socially, failures lead to feelings of inferiority.
Identity vs. Role Confusion: Adolescence; exploring identity and life direction.
Intimacy vs. Isolation: Creating meaningful relationships or living in solitude; timing stressors.
Generativity vs. Stagnation: Adult concern for future welfare; associated with midlife crises.
Integrity vs. Despair: Ageism and maintaining a positive self-image in late adulthood.
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theories:
Sensorimotor Stage: Simple actions related to sensory experiences; lack of object permanence.
Preoperational Stage (18 months-7 years): Egocentric thinking; symbolic usage but lacking conservation.
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Understanding conservation; difficulty with abstract thoughts.
Formal Operational Stage (11 years-adult): Mastery of abstract and hypothetical reasoning; logical thought emerges.
Module 3.5: Communication and Language
Language Acquisition Components:
Phonemes: Smallest sound units in language.
Morphemes: Smallest meaning-carrying units in language.
Grammar: Rules enabling effective communication.
Language Development:
Vocabulary growth averages around 3,500 words annually after age two.
Receptive Language: Infant understanding of spoken language.
Productive Language: Ability to produce spoken language (stages include babbling, one-word, and two-word stages).
The Brain and Language:
Aphasia: Language impairment due to damage in specific brain areas.
Broca’s Area: Frontal lobe, responsible for language expression.
Wernicke’s Area: Left temporal lobe, responsible for language comprehension.
Language processing involves multiple neural networks working in parallel.
Thinking and Language:
Linguistic Determinism: Whorf’s hypothesis positing that language shapes thought processes.
Linguistic Relativism: Language influences thinking and self-relations.
Bilingualism is correlated with enhanced cognitive capabilities.
Module 3.6: Social-Emotional Development Across the Lifespan
Ecological Systems Theory:
Examines the influence of social environments through five nested systems:
Microsystem: Immediate environments (e.g., family).
Mesosystem: Interconnections between different environments.
Exosystem: Indirect environmental influences (e.g., local politics).
Macrosystem: Broader socio-cultural values.
Chronosystem: Environmental change over time.
Social-Emotional Development in Infancy & Childhood:
Children form attachments to caregivers immediately; early recognition of familiar faces and voices by 4.5 months.
Stranger Anxiety: Fear of strangers emerging around 8 months; correlates with developing object permanence.
Attachment Theory and Origins:
Attachment: Emotional tie indicating closeness to caregivers and distress upon separation.
Harlow’s studies with monkeys suggested attachment formation is influenced more by comfort than nourishment.
Imprinting: Attachment formation that occurs at an early developmental stage among certain species.
Attachment Styles:
Secure Attachment: 60% of children; comfortable exploring environments in caregiver presence.
Insecure Attachment: 40% of children; anxious or avoidant attachment styles.
Resilience in Adversity:
Many children from troubled backgrounds exhibit resilience, managing to cope with future stresses.
Severe trauma can lead to long-term health challenges, including mental health issues.
Developing a Self-Concept:
Self-Concept: Collection of thoughts and feelings regarding oneself.
Self-recognition develops by 18 months; stable self-image forms by ages 8-10.
Parenting Styles and Outcomes:
Authoritarian Parenting: Imposes strict rules and expects obedience; often leads to poor social skills and self-esteem.
Permissive Parenting: Makes few demands or sets limits; may result in aggressive behavior.
Neglectful Parenting: Uninvolved and inattentive; often correlates with poor academic performance.
Authoritative Parenting: Balances demands with responsiveness; commonly produces socially competent children with high self-esteem.
Module 3.7: Classical Conditioning
Learning:
Learning: Acquiring new and enduring information or behaviors through experience.
Associative Learning: Associating certain events together; includes classical and operant conditioning.
Habituation: Decreased response after repeated exposure to stimuli.
Stimulus: Any event or situation evoking a response.
Conditioning Definition:
Classical Conditioning: Learning to associate two stimuli, leading to anticipatory responses.
Operant Conditioning: Associating a behavior with its consequences, leading to operant behaviors.
Pavlov’s Experiments:
Observed dogs salivating in response to food, creating an association with the feeder.
Dogs learned to associate the feeder’s presence with food, eliciting salivation even in absence of food.
Key Terminology:
Neutral Stimulus (NS): Does not evoke a response before conditioning (e.g., the bell in Pavlov’s experiment).
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers an unconditioned response (e.g., food).
Unconditioned Response (UCR): Unlearned response to UCS (e.g., salivation when food is presented).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that now triggers a conditioned response (e.g., the bell).
Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation in response to the bell).
Acquisition Process:
Initial stage of linking NS and UCS; timing of NS presentation is crucial (preceding UCS).
Learning won’t happen if the NS follows the UCS.
Higher-Order Conditioning:
When a new NS paired with existing CS creates an additional, weaker CS.
Extinction and Recovery:
Extinction: Diminishing of CR when CS no longer predicts UCS.
Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a weakened CR after a pause.
Generalization and Discrimination:
Generalization: Tendency to respond similarly to stimuli similar to the CS.
Discrimination: Ability to differentiate between the CS and similar stimuli not associated with the UCS.
Module 3.8: Operant Conditioning
Conceptual Framework:
Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning but focus on different aspects; classical links stimuli whereas operant relates behavior to consequences.
Overview of Operant Conditioning:
Learning in which behaviors are modified by reinforcements or punishments.
Reinforcement Types:
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., rewards).
Negative Reinforcement: Removing aversive stimuli to strengthen a response (e.g., pain relief from medicine).
Primary Reinforcers: Innately reinforcing, fulfill biological needs (e.g., food).
Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcers: Gain reinforcing power through association (e.g., money).
Reinforcement Timing:
Immediate reinforcers promote quick learning; delayed reinforcers can lead to long-term behavioral change.
Reinforcement Schedules:
Continuous Reinforcement: Every instance of the desired behavior is reinforced.
Partial Reinforcement: Only some instances are reinforced; leads to slower acquisition but higher resistance to extinction.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement after specific quantities of behaviors.
Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement after unpredictable numbers of behaviors.
Fixed-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement after specified time periods.
Variable-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement after varying time lengths.
Punishment Definitions:
Punishment: Event that decreases the likelihood of the behavior it follows.
Positive Punishment: Adding an adverse stimulus (e.g., scolding).
Negative Punishment: Removing a rewarding stimulus (e.g., timeout).
Effects of Punishment:
Suppresses behavior temporarily, may create fear, teaches avoidance, and does not replace unwanted actions.
Module 3.9: Learning
Cognition and Learning:
Latent Learning: Knowledge acquired without immediate reinforcement, visible only when incentive presents.
Cognitive Maps: Mental representations of environments.
Insight Learning: Problem-solving through sudden realization without direct rewards.
Learning by Observation:
Observational Learning: Acquiring knowledge by watching others; linked to Modeling (imitating observed behavior).
Vicarious Conditioning: Anticipating consequences by observing others' behaviors.
Mirror Neurons: Neurons activated during actions and observation, suggesting mirroring of behaviors.
Applications of Observational Learning:
Prosocial Behavior: Helpful and constructive actions; reinforced through observation.
Antisocial Behavior: Harmful actions modeled by others; children may imitate observed hypocrisy.