Comprehensive History Notes: Pakistan's Political and Constitutional Evolution (1948–1971)
Khwaja Nazimuddin: Second Governor-General (1948–1951) and Second Prime Minister (1951–1953)
Accession to Governor-Generalship:
Khwaja Nazimuddin assumed office as the second Governor-General of Pakistan on 14 September 1948, following the death of the first Governor-General, Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
Recognising that Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan held the confidence of the government, Khwaja Nazimuddin allowed Liaquat Ali Khan to lead executive governance.
The Objectives Resolution (12 March 1949):
Following independence, Pakistan was governed under the modified Government of India Act 1935.
A Basic Principles Committee consisting of 25 members was established to formulate the core principles of the forthcoming permanent constitution.
The committee's initial findings were incorporated into the Objectives Resolution, which was officially passed on 12 March 1949.
Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan declared the passing of the Objectives Resolution as "the most important occasion in the life of the country, next in importance only to the achievement of independence."
Core Declarations of the Objectives Resolution:
The State shall exercise its powers and authority through the chosen representatives of the people.
The principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance, and social justice as enunciated by Islam shall be fully observed.
Muslims shall be enabled to order their lives in individual and collective spheres in accordance with the teachings and requirements of Islam.
Adequate provisions shall be made for minorities to freely profess, practice their religions, and develop their cultures.
Fundamental human rights shall be guaranteed.
The legal and judicial system shall function independently of government influence.
Recommendations of the Basic Principles Committee Draft Proposals (28 September 1950):
Executive power would reside with the Head of State, acting on the advice of the Prime Minister.
The Head of State would appoint the Prime Minister, who would subsequently appoint the Cabinet of Ministers.
The Federal Parliament would consist of two houses with equal powers, capable of meeting in joint sessions on occasion.
All acts passed by the Legislature required the official approval of the Head of State.
Each province would maintain its own Assembly alongside a Governor vested with executive powers.
The Head of State retained the power to declare a state of emergency.
Urdu was designated as the sole official language of Pakistan.
Criticism of the 1950 Draft Proposals:
East Pakistan strongly resented the proposed equal representation in the National Assembly and the designation of Urdu as the sole official language.
Provincial politicians objected to the extensive centralization of powers granted to the Head of State and the Federal Government.
Religious groups criticized the draft for not being sufficiently Islamic.
Revised Basic Principles Committee Report (22 December 1952):
Khwaja Nazimuddin presented a revised report to the Constituent Assembly containing updated constitutional proposals:
The Head of State must explicitly be a Muslim.
Establishment of a House of Units containing 120 total members (60 from East Pakistan and 60 from West Pakistan).
Establishment of a House of People containing 400 total members (200 elected from East Pakistan and 200 from West Pakistan).
Separate electoral representation granted for religious minorities in both federal and provincial legislative seats.
Universal adult franchise granted to all citizens over the age of 21 via secret ballot.
The decision regarding the official language was deferred to be settled by the Assembly.
Criticism of the 1952 Revised Report:
The proposed political parity was heavily opposed in both East and West Pakistan.
The establishment of a proposed religious board was widely criticized for giving religious authorities an effective veto power over parliamentary legislation.
Public and Representative Office Disqualification Act (PRODA) and Security Legislation:
In 1949, the government enacted the Public and Representative Office Disqualification Act (PRODA) to disqualify individuals found guilty of "misconduct," a term defined broadly by the administration.
Any individual judged to have unduly benefited from public office could be debarred from holding public office for a specified period; the ruling elite utilized this act to eliminate political opponents.
In 1952, the Security of Pakistan Act was passed to expand central executive powers in the interest of public order and control political upheavals.
Liaquat-Nehru Pact / Minorities Agreement (April 1950):
Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru signed a bilateral agreement in April 1950 to resolve the ongoing refugee crisis.
Each government accepted full responsibility for guaranteeing the safety, security, and protection of minority groups residing within its borders.
Unrestricted passage of refugees across borders was curtailed, and a formal visa system was instituted.
A Central Refugee Council was established to manage refugee settlement and administrative issues.
The Rawalpindi Conspiracy (1951):
In January 1951, General Ayub Khan succeeded Sir Douglas Gracey as the Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army.
Prior to Sir Douglas Gracey's retirement, significant discontent had developed among military officers regarding the perceived reluctance of senior British commanders to take military action in Kashmir.
Dissatisfaction also grew regarding the general civilian administration of the country, setting the stage for Pakistan's first attempted military coup.
In March 1951, Chief of General Staff Major-General Akbar Khan and 14 other army officers were arrested for plotting a military coup.
The conspirators were tried in secret proceedings and handed long prison sentences.
Socio-Economic Crises and Anti-Ahmadi Movement (1953):
Early 1953 brought severe drought conditions, leading to acute national food shortages, economic depression, and widespread civil unrest.
Economic distress was driven by a sharp drop in global demand for Pakistan's main export commodities—jute and cotton—compounded by two consecutive years of drought.
In April 1953, Khwaja Nazimuddin announced that the United States of America and other foreign nations had agreed to donate 1,000,000 tonnes of wheat to relieve famine conditions.
Major anti-Ahmadi anti-sectarian riots erupted across Pakistani cities in February and March 1953, exploited by religious factions demanding that the Ahmadiya sect be legally declared non-Muslim.
Factions demanded the immediate dismissal of all Ahmadis from public office, including Foreign Minister Sir Zafar Ullah Khan.
Martial law was declared in affected cities, and key riot organizers were arrested.
On 17 April 1953, Governor-General Malik Ghulam Muhammad dismissed Prime Minister Khwaja Nazimuddin and three cabinet ministers on charges of failing to manage the economy and control civilian unrest. Khwaja Nazimuddin was replaced as Prime Minister by Muhammad Ali Bogra, then serving as Pakistan's Ambassador to the United States of America.
Malik Ghulam Muhammad: Third Governor-General (1951–1955)
Background and Economic Initiatives:
Malik Ghulam Muhammad, previously serving as Finance Minister, was appointed Governor-General following the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan in October 1951.
In 1950, he established the Planning Commission, which launched the Six Year Plan in 1951.
In 1953, he set up the Planning Board to oversee national economic development, laying the groundwork for the Five Years Plan (1956).
Industrial development included the establishment of a major jute mill at Narayanganj in East Pakistan.
Initiated national petroleum and natural gas exploration, leading to the discovery of natural gas deposits at Sui in Balochistan.
Aligned Pakistan with Western defense networks by joining the South-east Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) and the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO).
Constitutional Crisis of 1954–1955:
On 21 September 1954, while Malik Ghulam Muhammad was out of the country, Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Bogra led the Constituent Assembly to pass legislative amendments restricting the powers of the Governor-General:
The Governor-General must appoint a member of the Assembly as Prime Minister.
All cabinet ministers must be appointed from within the Assembly.
The Cabinet maintains office strictly based on retaining the confidence of the Assembly.
The Governor-General is bound by the advice of the cabinet ministers.
The bill passed the Assembly in 15 minutes, alongside a complete repeal of PRODA.
Upon returning the following week during Bogra's official visit to the USA, Malik Ghulam Muhammad declared a state of emergency and dissolved the Constituent Assembly.
Malik Ghulam Muhammad appointed a new Cabinet, reappointing Bogra as Prime Minister, but selected five non-Assembly members into the cabinet, including Commander-in-Chief General Ayub Khan as Minister of Defence.
Maulvi Tamizuddin, Speaker of the dissolved Assembly, challenged the dissolution in the Sindh High Court.
In February 1955, the Sindh High Court ruled the dissolution illegal, deciding in favor of Maulvi Tamizuddin.
Malik Ghulam Muhammad appealed the verdict to the Federal Court of Pakistan.
On 10 May 1955, the Federal Court overturned the decision, ruling that the Governor-General possessed lawful authority to dissolve the Assembly if satisfied that governance had broken down.
Elections for a Second Constituent Assembly were conducted on 21 June 1955.
Suffering from severe illness, Malik Ghulam Muhammad resigned in August 1955 and was succeeded by Major General Iskander Mirza.
Major General Iskander Mirza: Fourth Governor-General (1955–1956) and First President (1956–1958)
Tenure and Political Executive Moves:
Major General Iskander Mirza served as Governor-General from August 1955 to March 1956, and as the first President of Pakistan from March 1956 to October 1958.
Dismissed Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Bogra and replaced him with Chaudhry Muhammad Ali.
The 'One Unit' Scheme:
In November 1954, Muhammad Ali Bogra had proposed amalgamating the four western provinces and ten princely states into a unified single province of West Pakistan.
On 14 October 1955, Iskander Mirza formally executed the 'One Unit Scheme', unifying West Pakistan into a single administrative unit.
Official justifications cited increased administrative efficiency, accelerated development, and consolidated national loyalty.
West Pakistani regional politicians resisted the consolidation for fear of centralized dominance, while East Pakistani leaders opposed it because it eliminated East Pakistan's numerical majority (East Pakistan had 10,000,000 more residents than West Pakistan).
To enforce the scheme, Iskander Mirza dismissed the Chief Minister of Sindh and dissolved the legislative assemblies of Bahawalpur and Khairpur.
The 1956 Constitution:
Passed by the Second Constituent Assembly on 29 February 1956 and officially adopted on 23 March 1956 as a compromise between the Muslim League and the United Front.
Formally declared Pakistan an Islamic Republic.
Prescribed that the President must be a Muslim over 40 years of age, elected by a joint session of the Central and Provincial Legislatures.
Vested the President with powers to appoint the Prime Minister and Cabinet, exercise emergency powers, and dissolve the Assembly upon the advice of the Prime Minister.
Designated the Cabinet as an advisory body, with legislative authority placed in National and Provincial Assemblies.
Fixed parity in the National Assembly with an equal distribution of parliamentary seats between East and West Pakistan.
Enacted a requirement of a majority vote in the Assembly to pass constitutional amendments.
Iskander Mirza was sworn in as the first President under this constitution.
The 1956 Constitution remained in effect for two and a half years before being abrogated in October 1958.
Executive Turnover and Economic Progress (1956–1958):
Initiated state industrialization and rural development programs, completed Karachi Airport, modernized railway infrastructure, and expanded telecommunications.
Growing political estrangement in East Pakistan due to exclusion from central decision-making, ongoing food deficits, and destructive flooding.
Prime Minister Chaudhry Muhammad Ali resigned on 12 September 1956, replaced by Hussein Shaheed Suharwardy.
Suharwardy was dismissed in October 1957, succeeded by Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar, whose coalition government suffered from severe internal policy disagreements.
Chundrigar was replaced in December 1957 by Malik Feroze Khan Noon, whose cabinet experienced even greater internal fragmentation.
Fearing defeat in general elections promised for 1957, Iskander Mirza repeatedly postponed national polling.
On 7 October 1958, Iskander Mirza declared Martial Law across Pakistan, abrogated the 1956 Constitution, and appointed General Ayub Khan as Chief Martial Law Administrator.
General Ayub Khan was named Prime Minister on 24 October 1958.
On 27 October 1958, General Ayub Khan forced Iskander Mirza to resign, exiled him to London, and established complete military rule.
Causes of Political Instability and Frequent Government Changes (1951–1958)
Loss of Founding Leadership:
The death of Muhammad Ali Jinnah in September 1948 and the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan in October 1951 deprived the state of experienced, founding figures.
Unresolved Bilateral and Territorial Disputes:
Severe administrative strain caused by India's reluctance to equitably distribute shared post-partition assets.
Deepening conflict and military tensions with India over Kashmir without formal diplomatic settlement.
Economic and Agricultural Crises:
Prolonged drought conditions between 1951 and 1953 triggered food shortages, high inflation, and economic contraction, inciting severe civil riots that forced recurring cabinet dismissals.
Constitutional Delays and Regional Resentment:
Prolonged failure to draft a constitution until 1956 generated structural uncertainty.
The 1956 Constitution alienated East Pakistan due to the concentration of federal authority in West Pakistan, the denial of primary official language status to Bengali, and equal legislative representation despite population differences.
Implementation of the 'One Unit Scheme' sparked widespread political hostility in both wings.
Legislative and Coalition Instability:
A total of seven Prime Ministers held office over an eleven-year period (1947–1958).
Civilian cabinets were composed of ideologically mismatched political factions, causing total executive gridlock that Iskander Mirza cited to justify invoking Martial Law in 1958.
General Muhammad Ayub Khan: Martial Law Administration and Governance (1958–1969)
Factors Leading to the 1958 Martial Law:
Severe political instability characterized by four different Prime Ministers holding office between 1956 and 1958.
Growing economic inflation, corruption, severe food shortages, and disastrous flooding in East Pakistan.
Widespread political disagreement over the 'One Unit Scheme' within the coalition governments of Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar and Malik Feroze Khan Noon.
Desire within the military leadership for a strong defense mandate against India, leading Commander-in-Chief General Ayub Khan to conclude army rule was necessary to enforce national stability.
Postponement of national elections by President Iskander Mirza out of fear of losing power, alongside political maneuvers by Hussein Shaheed Suharwardy to unite Bengali and Punjabi political blocs against him.
On 7 October 1958, President Mirza declared Martial Law with Ayub Khan as Chief Martial Law Administrator; Ayub Khan subsequently exiled Mirza on 27 October 1958.
The Basic Democracies System (1959):
Promulgated via the Basic Democracies Order on 26 October 1959, establishing a four-tier electoral structure:
Union Councils.
Tehsil or Thana Councils (composed of elected representatives known as Basic Democrats).
District Councils.
Division Councils (composed of civil servants appointed by the Provincial Development Advisory Council - PDAC).
Constituted initially by 80,000 members (40,000 from East Pakistan and 40,000 from West Pakistan), later expanded to 120,000 members.
Served as an Electoral College responsible for electing the President, as well as members of the Central and Provincial Legislatures.
Elections for Basic Democrats were held between 26 December 1959 and 7 January 1960 without the participation of political parties.
A secret ballot referendum among the newly elected Basic Democrats yielded a 95 per cent vote confirming Ayub Khan as the elected President of Pakistan.
Constitutional Reforms (1962 Constitution):
Promulgated a presidential constitution vesting executive authority directly in the President.
The President could not be removed short of impeachment.
The President held sole authority to appoint cabinet ministers from the National Assembly, nominate judicial leadership, and select Provincial Governors.
The National Legislature could not enact laws without presidential approval, while the President held full authority to alter or implement legislation.
Recognized both Urdu and Bengali as national languages.
Prescribed that sessions of the National Assembly be held in both Islamabad and Dhaka.
Stipulated that whenever the President was a native of West Pakistan, the Speaker of the National Assembly must be selected from East Pakistan.
Agricultural Reforms ('Green Revolution'):
Established a Land Reform Commission that mandated strict ceilings on individual agricultural landholdings:
Minimum farm size set at 12.5 acres.
Maximum farm ownership capped at 500 acres for irrigated land or 1,000 acres for un-irrigated land.
Government resumed excess land above these limits and redistributed it to tenant farmers, driving uncultivated lands into production.
Signed the landmark Indus Water Treaty with India in September 1960, securing funding for major dams, barrages, and link canals.
Provided agricultural credit for mechanical modernization, leading to the installation of 75,000 tube-wells to combat water-logging and salinity.
Introduced High Yield Varieties (HYV) of seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides, and pesticides, resulting in record crop harvests termed the 'Green Revolution'.
Wealthy landlords frequently circumvented reforms by surrendering poor quality lands while retaining prime agricultural plots.
Industrial Reforms:
Secured significant development loans from Western nations, including the USA, Germany, and the United Kingdom.
Constructed an oil refinery in Karachi in 1962.
Founded the Mineral Development Corporation of Pakistan (MDCP) to accelerate mineral exploration.
Established the Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD) in 1964 with Iran and Turkey.
Introduced the Export Bonus Scheme to provide direct financial incentives to industrial exporters.
Achieved an annual economic growth rate of 7 per cent, three times higher than that of India.
Industrial wealth concentrated heavily; by 1968, 22 industrial families controlled 66 per cent of Pakistan's industrial assets and 80 per cent of its banking and insurance assets, with all 22 families based in West Pakistan.
Social and Administrative Reforms:
Revised national educational curricula, published standardized textbooks, and launched broad literacy programs and educational institution construction.
Appointed General Azam Khan as Rehabilitation Minister, who successfully settled 75,000 displaced refugees in new Karachi housing developments and mandated factory owners to construct worker housing.
Launched national Family Planning Programs funded by US loans, utilizing state media to advocate family size reduction, alongside expanding medical training facilities.
Promulgated the Muslim Family Laws Ordinance in 1961, requiring mandatory court registration for marriages and divorces, while establishing legal minimum marriage ages of 16 years for females and 18 years for males.
Executed crackdowns on black-market trading, smuggling, and food hoarding, setting mandatory state price caps on essential foodstuffs.
Foreign Policy Developments:
Maintained strong pro-Western diplomatic alignment, receiving substantial military and economic aid from the United States.
Expanded diplomatic and strategic ties with China following the 1962 Sino-Indian War, marked by an official state visit by Ayub Khan to Beijing.
Strained relations with the USSR due to US reconnaissance flights originating from the American airbase at Peshawar; however, Ayub Khan made an official visit to Moscow in 1965, becoming the first Pakistani head of state to visit the Soviet Union.
Hosted and signed the Tashkent Declaration on 10 January 1966 with Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri under the mediation of Soviet Premier Aleksey Kosygin following the 1965 Indo-Pakistan War.
The Tashkent Agreement stipulated that both nations withdraw armed forces to pre-August 1965 positions, restore diplomatic relations under the UN Charter, and negotiate trade, refugee resettlement, and prisoner-of-war repatriations.
Relocation of the National Capital to Islamabad:
Prior to 1958, federal planning envisioned building a capital site at Gadap near Karachi.
In 1960, the decision was made to relocate the capital inland to Islamabad.
Justifications included Islamabad's superior climate, isolating government administrators from commercial special interests in Karachi, moving the power base closer to army headquarters in Rawalpindi, and protecting the capital from Arabian Sea naval attacks.
Construction began in October 1961; initial office facilities were occupied on 26 October 1966, and Islamabad was formally declared the national capital in 1967.
The capital relocation provoked intense political resentment in East Pakistan, where leaders argued the capital should have been established in the eastern wing, while criticizing the massive expenditure and land speculation by military and industrial figures.
Political Opposition and Downfall:
In 1968, the government officially celebrated the 'Decade of Development' (or 'Decade of Progress'), which acted as a catalyst for opposition groups to mobilize.
Sacked Foreign Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto organized political resistance against Ayub Khan following the Tashkent Declaration.
Popular resentment grew over electoral fraud allegations in the 1965 presidential election, rising food costs, and extreme economic inequality.
Student demonstrations erupted across West Pakistan in October 1968; during a visit to Peshawar, Ayub Khan survived an assassination attempt.
Widespread political arrests, including the detention of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, caused protests to spread to East Pakistan.
In January 1969, eight opposition parties formed the Democratic Action Committee (DAC), demanding emergency powers be revoked and direct general elections restored.
Although Ayub Khan lifted emergency provisions, released political prisoners, and initiated talks with opposition leaders, negotiations failed, forcing his resignation on 25 March 1969.
General Yahya Khan: Martial Law Administration (1969–1971)
Assumption of Office and Emergency Directives:
Commander-in-Chief General Yahya Khan assumed the office of President and Chief Martial Law Administrator on 25 March 1969 following Ayub Khan's resignation.
Issued a Provisional Constitutional Order on 4 April 1969, which abrogated the 1962 Constitution while retaining select administrative provisions.
Formally declared the Basic Democracies system a failure and abolished the 'One Unit' administrative structure in West Pakistan.
Legal Framework Order (LFO) and Democratic Mandate:
Issued the Legal Framework Order (LFO) in March 1970, defining the structural principles for drafting the next national constitution.
Scheduled direct general elections for 5 November 1970 based on the principle of 'one man, one vote'.
Mandated that the newly elected National Assembly prepare and adopt a new constitution within a strict limit of 120 days.
Political and military miscalculations during the 1971 crisis led to the loss of East Pakistan and forced General Yahya Khan's resignation on 20 December 1971.
Academic Questions and Past Paper Topics
Group A Questions (4 Marks):
Describe the constitutional crisis of 1954–55.
Describe the 1956 Constitution.
What was the 'One Unit' Scheme?
What were the Basic Democracies?
How did Ayub Khan achieve power?
Group B Questions (7 Marks):
Why was it so difficult to agree on a new Constitution in 1950?
Why was there a constitutional crisis between 1954 and 1955?
Why were there so many governments between 1951 and 1958?
Why was Martial Law declared by Ayub Khan in 1958?
Why did Ayub Khan come to power in 1958?
Why was Islamabad chosen as the new capital of Pakistan?
Explain why there was a constitutional crisis in 1958.
Explain why the period of Ayub Khan's government (1958–69) is called the 'Decade of Progress'.
Group C Questions (14 Marks):
Who of the following contributed the most to Pakistan's domestic policies between 1948 and 1958: (i) Liaquat Ali Khan; (ii) Malik Ghulam Muhammad; (iii) Iskander Mirza? Explain your answer with reference to all three of the above.
Which of the following contributed the most to Pakistan's domestic policies between 1948 and 1958: (i) Khwaja Nazimuddin; (ii) Malik Ghulam Muhammad; (iii) Iskander Mirza? Explain your answer with reference to all three of the above.
'Constitutional reforms were the most important of Ayub Khan's domestic policies during the "Decade of Progress" between 1958 and 1969.' Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer.
Were the social reforms of Ayub Khan the most important of his domestic policies during the 'Decade of Progress' between 1958 and 1969? Explain your answer.
Were the economic reforms of Ayub Khan the most important of his domestic policies in the 'Decade of Progress' between 1958 and 1969? Explain your answer.
'Ayub Khan's agricultural policies were the most effective of the domestic reforms that took place between 1958 and 1969.' How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer.