IGCSE Geography Case Studies

Population

• Over-populated Country: Bangladesh

  • Population: $153$ million

  • Population density: $1062/km^2$

  • Land area: $147,000 km^2$

  • Natural increase: $1.6\%$

  • Resource-poor country with a lack of natural resources.

  • Population more than doubled since 1971 (from $75$ million), indicating increasing growth rate.

  • High poverty leads to lower living standards, increasing the need for children to contribute to the economy.

  • Four-fifths of the population lives in rural areas.

  • $40\%$ of the population is under-employed.

  • Cyclones and flooding exacerbate the situation due to $80\%$ of the population residing on the floodplains of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers, leading to rural-to-urban migration.

  • Dhaka, the capital city, faces increased population pressure for housing, healthcare, water, and sanitation.

  • Population density of Dhaka: $43000/km^2$, among the world's highest.

  • Limited healthcare access: only $1$ qualified doctor for every $25,000$ village people.

  • Dhaka faces traffic congestion, unemployment, and extreme difficulty in accessing education (e.g., $20$ seats for $20,000$ applicants).

  • Bangladesh's land area is relatively small compared to its population, contributing to high density.

  • Population density is $20$ times the global average.

  • Other contributing factors: fertile land, high illiteracy rate, and limited awareness of the cons of a larger population.

  • Causes for High Growth Rate

    • High birth rates.
    • High infant mortality rate (IMR): $43/1000$ (IMR is the number of deaths of children under one year of age per 1000 live births).
    • Increased poverty, leading to reliance on children for economic contribution.
    • High illiteracy rate of $73.91 \%$.
    • Lack of awareness of contraception.
    • Limited emancipation of women.
    • Increased subsistence farming, with $4/5$ of the population in rural areas.

  • Causes for High Density

    • Land area is relatively less than the population.
    • Fertile region attracting farmers and others to live there.
    • Rural-to-urban migration to Dhaka.
    • Intensive rice production.

• Under-populated Country: Australia

  • Population: $22$ million
  • Population density: $3/km^2$
  • Rate of natural change: $0.7\%$.
  • Infant mortality rate: $4/1000$.
  • Land area: $7.7$ million $km^2$ (6th largest in the world).
  • Fertility rate: $1.8$ children per woman.
  • Resource-rich country, exporting raw materials (coal, iron ore, gold, etc.).
  • Vast land area contributes to low population density.
  • Uneven population distribution with most people living on fertile coastlines.
  • Positive net migration leading to a good quality of life.
  • Causes of Underpopulation
    • Developed infrastructure and improved health and education.
    • Improved healthcare.
    • Availability and affordability of contraception.
    • Low fertility rates.
    • Highly skilled workers are paid high wages, thus, less reliance on children.
    • Emancipation of women.
  • Problems of Underpopulation
    • Shortage of workers.
    • Inability to exploit all resources.
    • Fewer taxpayers, reducing government revenue.
    • Potential closure of schools and hospitals.
    • Reduced brainpower leading to less innovation and economic development.
    • Potential closure of public transport links.
    • Increased dependency ratio.

• Country with Low Population Growth/Decline: Russia

  • In 2012, birth rate was $13/1000$, death rate was $14/1000$, resulting in a natural change of $-0.1\%$.

  • In 2017, birth rate was $11/1000$, death rate was $13.5/1000$, resulting in a natural change of $-0.25\%$.

  • 2018 growth rate: $-0.02\%$.

  • Peak population (1991): $148.7$ million; 2012 population: $143$ million.

  • Population density: approximately $8.4 km^2$, one of the most sparsely populated countries.

  • Table 6: Russia’s Population, 1991-2050 (in millions)

    • 1991: $148.7$
    • 2012: $143.2$
    • 2017: $143.98$
    • 2018: $143.96$
    • 2025 (estimate): $140.8$
    • 2050 (estimate): $127.8$

  • Reasons for Population Decline/Slow Growth

    • Low birth rates.
    • High death rates, particularly among men.
    • Emigration.

  • Transition from a communist centrally planned economy to a market economy has increased inequality, unemployment, and poverty.

  • High perceived cost of raising children when both parents need to work.

  • High education standards for women, giving them a decisive say in family size decisions.

  • High contraception use: $80\%$ of married women aged 15-49 use contraception.

  • High adult literacy rate: $99.7\%$ in 2015.

  • Significant difference in life expectancy between men and women.

    • 2012: Women - $75$ years, Men - $63$ years.
    • 2017: Women - $77.64$ years, Men - $67.51$ years.

  • Low male life expectancy attributed to high alcohol intake, smoking, pollution, poverty, HIV/AIDS, and other diseases.

  • High male death rate results in $10.7$ million more women than men.

  • Greatest population decline in rural areas with $8500$ villages abandoned since 2002.

  • Sociological survey (June 2011): one-fifth of the Russian population are potential emigrants!

  • 2017 net migration rate: $1.7$ migrant(s)/1,000 population.

  • Government efforts to boost birth rates include honoring families with four or more children with a Parental Glory medal.

  • Government has allocated $2.4 billion to provide Russian women an allowance of$180$for 18 months after the birth of their first child.</p></li> <li><p>Russia lost$106,200$people between January and October 2017.</p></li> <li><p>Mass emigration waves increasing, leading to a potential brain drain.</p></li> <li><p>350,000 people emigrated from Russia in 2015 (10 times more than five years ago).</p></li></ul></li> <li><p><strong>International Migration: Mexico to USA</strong></p> <ul> <li>Since 1965, over$16$million Mexicans have migrated to the USA.</li> <li>Approximately$6,650,000$illegal immigrants have crossed the 2000 km border, with over$6000$deaths during crossings.</li> <li>Annual migration rate:$1$million Mexicans to the USA.</li> <li><strong>Push Factors (Mexico)</strong><ul> <li>High crime rates:$47,500$crime-related deaths in the past 5 years.</li> <li>Poor medical facilities:$1800$people per doctor.</li> <li>Low-paid jobs: GNP -$3750$.</li> <li>Low literacy rate:$55\%$.</li> <li>Climate and natural disasters.</li> <li>Government corruption.</li> <li>Unemployment and poverty (estimated$40\%$).</li> <li>Despite being the 11th richest country, it has the 10th highest poverty rate:$44.2\%$.</li></ul></li> <li><strong>Pull Factors (USA)</strong><ul> <li>Better quality of life and improved infrastructure.</li> <li>Lower risk from natural disasters.</li> <li>Excellent medical facilities:$400$people per doctor.</li> <li>Well-paid jobs: GNP -$24,750$.</li> <li>Literacy rate:$99\%$.</li> <li>Lower crime rates and better policing.</li> <li>School leaving age: 16 vs. 14 in Mexico.</li></ul></li> <li><strong>Impact on Mexico</strong><ul> <li>Shortage of economically active people.</li> <li>Food shortages.</li> <li>Increased dependent population due to youth migration.</li> <li>Legal and illegal immigrants send around$6$billion a year to Mexico.</li> <li>Gender inequality (hard for women to find partners) leading to decreased birth rates and increased dependency ratio.</li> <li>Reduced pressure on land, social services, and jobs.</li></ul></li> <li><strong>Impact on USA</strong><ul> <li>Illegal migration costs millions in border patrol and prison expenses.</li> <li>Improved culture.</li> <li>Drug-related crime problems.</li> <li>Spanish language taught in almost all American states.</li> <li>Top 5 states for Mexican immigrants (2015): California ($37\%$, Texas ($22\%$, Illinois ($6\%$, and Florida ($2\%$.)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><p><strong>Country with High Dependent Population: Japan</strong></p> <ul> <li>MEDC with a population of$128$million (10th largest globally).</li> <li>Largest population of people over 65 years:$1/5$of the population is over 65 ($19.7\%$or$25.2$million).</li> <li>Higher than other countries: Italy ($19.6\%$, Germany ($18.6\%$, and France ($16.3\%$.)</li> <li>Total fertility rate:$1.25$.</li> <li>Average life expectancy:$84$</li> <li><strong>Main Causes of High Dependent Population</strong><ul> <li>High life expectancy due to improved medical care, advancements in technology, healthy lifestyles, and good sanitation (males:$82$, females:$89$).</li> <li>Low fertility rates due to later marriages, higher education, emancipation of women, and higher cost of raising a child. Percentage of women never married increased from$22\%$to$30\%$.</li></ul></li> <li><strong>Other Causes</strong><ul> <li>Declined infant mortality rate.</li> <li>Lack of childcare facilities.</li> <li>Expensive pregnancy costs.</li> <li>Low child benefit payments from the government.</li></ul></li> <li><strong>Impacts of Aging Population</strong><ul> <li>Government raised the retirement age from 60 to 65.</li> <li>Lack of healthcare staff to look after the elderly.</li> <li>Costly pensions.</li> <li>Workforce is expected to fall$15\%$over the next 20 years and halve in the next 50 years.</li> <li>Shrinking workforce rate:$1\%$per year.</li> <li>Increases in the dependency ratio (old).</li> <li>Less innovation among older population resulting in a less educated workforce and lower economic development.</li> <li>Requirement of high tax rates to gain tax revenue.</li> <li>Need for immigration of economically active people to reduce aging population and increase economic growth.</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><p><strong>Sparsely Populated Country: The Canadian Northlands</strong></p> <ul> <li><p>Location: North America beyond$55$degrees north.</p></li> <li><p>Largest settlement: Yellowknife in the Northwest Territories (population$19,000$).</p></li> <li><p>Population density: less than$1$person per square km.</p></li> <li><p><strong>Reasons for Sparse Population</strong></p> <ul> <li><strong>Climate</strong>: Extremely cold and inhospitable in winter (mean average January temperature being$-20$degrees C).</li> <li><strong>Summers</strong>: Short, limiting agriculture.</li> <li><strong>Permafrost</strong>: Ground is permanently frozen, making life difficult, restricting building, and hindering crop growth.</li> <li><strong>Transport and communications</strong>: Hampered by climatic conditions with limited railway and road routes; air transport is often the only link to the outside world.</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><p><strong>Anti-Natalist Policy: China’s One Child Policy</strong></p> <ul> <li><p>Population (2016):$1.3$billion.</p></li> <li><p>Life expectancy:$76$years.</p></li> <li><p>Fertility rate decreased from$5.7$births/woman in 1970 to$1.57$births/woman in 2015.</p></li> <li><p>Since 1970, birth rates reduced by$400$million.</p></li> <li><p><strong>Background</strong></p> <ul> <li>Post-WWII, China needed a higher population to strengthen its army, resulting in rapid population growth.</li> <li>1970s: government realized the country would face famine unless drastic changes were made.</li></ul></li> <li><p><strong>Policy Implementation (1979)</strong></p> <ul> <li>Restricted family size to one child.</li> <li>Increased marriageable age (men-22, women-20).</li> <li>Citizens had to apply to the government to marry.</li> <li>Incentives for compliance: free education, healthcare, housing, and jobs.</li> <li>Penalties for non-compliance: no benefits, fines, and required abortions.</li> <li>Salary rise of$5-10\%$for limiting family to one child.</li> <li>In 2007,$39\%$of the population was subject to strict one-child restriction.</li></ul></li> <li><p><strong>Effects of the Policy</strong></p> <ul> <li>Female infanticide (preference for males).</li> <li>Birth rates fallen from$44$to$12$.</li> <li>Population growth rate decreased by more than$10\%$since implementation.</li> <li>Estimated 400 million fewer people have been born.</li> <li>New industries have lifted millions out of poverty.</li> <li>Dependency ratio decreased.</li> <li>Working age population decreased (long term).</li> <li>'Little Emperor' syndrome: only children were often spoiled.</li> <li>Gender imbalance: more than 30 million more young men than young women.</li></ul></li> <li><p><strong>Exceptions to the Policy</strong></p> <ul> <li>If the first child was disabled, a second child was allowed.</li> <li>Twins or triplets.</li> <li>Families in rural areas were allowed a second child.</li> <li>Ethnic groups were exempt.</li> <li>Couples who bribed officials.</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><p><strong>Pro-Natalist Policy: France</strong></p> <ul> <li>Population (2015):$67$million</li> <li>Fertility level:$1.67$children per woman in 1992, increased to$2.0$$ in 2015 (close to replacement rate of 2.1)

  • Concerns with low population/fertility levels:
    • Decrease in labor supply
    • Long term prospect of population decline
  • Reasons for reduced fertility levels:
    • Education
    • Women in careers
    • Later marriages
    • State benefits
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