Samoa
Second Section: Art, Architecture, and Performance in Samoa
Examination of how art, architecture, and performance establish, reflect, and reinforce social structure in Samoa.
Geography and Population
Samoa is an archipelago located in the Pacific Ocean, south of the Equator.
Consists of two main regions: American Samoa (eastern) and independent Samoa (western).
Major islands:
American Samoa: Tutuila (largest and most populous), Manu'a Islands.
Samoa: Upolu (three-fourths of the population) and Savai'i (largest landmass, most rural).
Additional smaller islands: Monono, Apolima (inhabited), and other minor uninhabited islands.
Climate and Agriculture
Tropical climate with a rainy and dry season; average temperature in the mid-80s.
Traditionally, Samoans are farmers cultivating taro, banana, yam, and breadfruit. Coconuts are native and essential to the diet.
Increased urban migration to Apia has impacted traditional farming lifestyles.
Economy
The economy of Samoa relies heavily on agriculture, tourism, foreign aid, and remittances from Samoans living abroad.
Agriculture: A significant portion of the population engages in subsistence farming, growing crops such as taro, bananas, yams, and breadfruit. Coconuts also play an essential role in their economy and diets. Despite urban migration, farming remains integral to cultural identity.
Tourism: A vital economic sector that has grown substantially due to the natural beauty and cultural heritage of Samoa. Popular tourist activities include beach resorts, eco-tourism, and cultural tours, which contribute significantly to employment and domestic income.
Foreign Aid: Samoa benefits from aid and investment from international agencies and countries, including New Zealand and Australia, helping to support infrastructure and public services.
Remittances: The economy is substantially supported by remittances from the Samoan diaspora, making up a considerable percentage of GDP, which aids families and local businesses back home.
Cultural Background
Samoa is part of Polynesia, with historical ties to neighboring islands.
Indigenous Polynesians migrated from Taiwan about 5,000 years ago, later establishing settlements through maritime navigation.
The Lapita peoples (circa 1400 BC) significantly impacted the cultural landscape and initiated widespread inter-island voyaging.
Samoan contacts with Europeans began around 1721, leading to changes in governance and cultural dynamics.
Colonial History
Samoa's colonial history began in earnest in the late 19th century as Western powers sought control over Pacific territories.
German Annexation (1900): Germany established a protectorate over Western Samoa, exerting control over its political, economic, and social systems.
New Zealand Administration (1914-1962): Following Germany's defeat in WWI, New Zealand took control of Samoa, leading to enforced colonial rule and cultural changes. The New Zealand administration faced resistance from Samoan leaders and the population.
Mau Movement (1926-1940s): The Mau movement emerged in response to colonial oppression, advocating for self-governance and emphasizing traditional Samoan values. Activists, including prominent leaders like Olaf Frederick Nelson, campaigned for independence, culminating in increased political awareness and national identity among Samoans.
Post-WWII Changes: After WWII, the political landscape shifted significantly, leading to growing demands for self-determination and, eventually, independence.
Independence (1962): In 1962, Samoa became the first Polynesian nation to gain independence, establishing a parliamentary democracy while retaining significant cultural traditions, including the matai system.
Social Structure
Central to Samoan culture is fa'asamoa, the traditional way of living, encompassing social organization, customs, and political systems.
The aiga (extended family) is a fundamental unit, headed by a Matai (chief), who oversees resources and family matters.
Two classifications of Matai: Ali'i (high chief) with command authority and Tulafale (orator chief) who represents the family publicly.
Monthly village meetings called fono are held to manage affairs at various administrative levels.
Fale Samoa: Reflection of Social Structure in Samoa
The Fale Samoa is integral in establishing and reflecting the social organization within Samoan villages, showcasing the hierarchy and importance of family dynamics.
Traditional Samoan architecture is distinct in that it lacks walls, utilizing coconut palm blinds to provide privacy during adverse weather conditions. This design emphasizes a cultural value of openness and accessibility in communal life.
The Role of Fale in Social Structure
The term fale signifies any building, but particularly highlights the importance of the guest fale, which each extended family (aiga) possesses. This structure is a central hub for family gatherings, particularly during crucial life events such as weddings, funerals, and significant meetings.
The guest fale symbolizes family unity and serves as a physical representation of the family’s status within the village community. It is the space where local and dispersed family members converge to maintain their connections, further reinforcing the family’s social standings.
In Samoan culture, a family's standing is often determined by the presence and grandeur of their guest fale, indicating their ability to accommodate guests and host community ceremonies.
Types of Fale Samoa
Falesamoa is a specific term that describes structures that maintain traditional Samoan characteristics—specifically, those that are wall-less and primarily constructed of wood.
Construction Features:
Foundations: Traditionally made of coral, sand, or lava rock, which may be overlaid with a layer of pebbles or crushed coral; this provides a firm base. Mats are used for sitting, making the surface somewhat cushioned against the hard flooring.
Materials: The primary framework is constructed from the breadfruit tree, providing strength and flexibility. The domed roof is crafted from coconut timber, and is supported by a design resembling a latticework of wooden slats, resembling an enormous basket. The roof is topped with thatch made from dry leaves of sugarcane or coconut palms, which is typically replaced every 4-6 years.
Construction Techniques
Binding: Traditional construction methods employed sennit rope ('afa), created from the outer husk of the coconut. The husks are soaked in fresh water, softened, and then beaten to assemble fibers into a cord that is rolled into heavier strands and plated into a braid. For substantial constructions, this can require between 30,000 to 50,000 feet of sennit.
Architectural Specialists: Important constructions, particularly of significant falesamoa like guest houses, were overseen by specialists known as Tufuga fau Fale. These master builders lived with the family during construction and were compensated primarily with food and gifts such as 'ie tonga (fine mats), the most valued item in Samoan culture.
Distinctions in Fale Types
Faletele: Typically round and associated historically with Ali'i (high chiefs), these structures are designed with 1-3 central support posts. The design features an outer circle of posts that stabilize the roof's weight and define the space, similar to walls in Western architecture.
Faleafolau: Longer than the faletele, the faleafolau originated later and possibly from Tonga, marked by its elevation on two parallel courses of posts around its perimeter. This type indicates a different social function, often linked to Tulafale (talking chiefs), distinguishing the architectural identity and status of the family.
Evolution and Modern Influences
Many contemporary constructions utilize nails instead of traditional lashing, and decorative embellishments like photographs or printed cloth replace sennit. While traditional builders have dwindled in number, some structures still honor classic techniques, often constructed for resorts or government buildings.
Despite these modern adaptations, the traditional falesamoa remains a potent symbol of Samoan cultural identity, even as the everyday usage of such structures continues to decline in modern villages. The increasing rarity of these
Hybrid Structures in Samoa
Introduction
In contemporary Samoan architecture, traditional structures are evolving, often hybridizing elements of Western construction with indigenous spatial designs. This blend results in a variety of buildings used for different purposes, while still reflecting core cultural values. Here are the primary structures examined:
Key Structures
Faleapa:
Description: Rectangular buildings built using milled lumber and sheet metal, utilizing Western building techniques while retaining a traditional Samoan layout that centers around an open area with no walls.
Historical Use: 25 years ago, these structures were common as residences and guest houses. Today, they are primarily used for prestigious functions within the community.
Furnishings: The usage of space can be discerned from the presence or absence of furniture; residences typically have furniture, while guest houses remain completely open to accommodate visitors and community meetings.
Falepalagi:
Description: These Western-style buildings come with external walls, sheet metal roofs, doors, and louvered windows. The term "palagi" denotes non-Samoans, highlighting the Western influence in their design.
Interior Layout: Falepalagi may contain one or more rooms, with a spatial organization that generally lacks hallways. While they appear visually different from traditional falesamoa, falepalagi retain an internal use pattern reflective of earlier practices, such as communal sleeping and eating around a central space.
Cultural Significance of Structures
Socioeconomic Factors:
The rise of faleapa and falepalagi is often driven by financial contributions from family members living abroad. Increased access to money allows families to invest in Western materials and construction techniques.
Communal Living and Usage:
Central to both building types is the continuation of public spaces for community rituals, meetings, and other social gatherings, highlighting the importance of visibility in familial and communal relationships.
Enduring Traditions: Despite adopting Western materials and designs, the layout of these structures emphasizes open spaces—an essential aspect of Samoan architecture, facilitating communal interactions and connections.
Lesser Structures
Faleo'o:
Description: Simple, low-status residences that families construct without professional help, often using a mix of materials available locally.
Use: Faleo'o may serve as additional relaxing spaces by the sea or next to a main house, primarily reflecting traditional designs akin to falesamoa.
Umukuka (falekuka):
Description: This structure serves as a cooking area, traditionally characterized as an open shelter without walls, designed for cooking with earth ovens or over an open fire.
Functionality: The falekuka is purposely constructed to protect cooks from the elements while allowing heat and smoke to escape, emphasizing practicality rather than prestige within the family.
Faleuila/Falevao:
Description: Outhouses that serve basic sanitation needs, still prevalent in many villages, even with the inclusion of Western-style bathrooms in modern homes.
Cultural Perspective: These structures are regarded with lower status, redirecting guests to updated restroom facilities to maintain family image while fulfilling essential functions.
Interplay of Public and Private Spaces
Significance of Architecture:
The status of various structures, such as guest houses and falepalagi, indicates the family's social standing within the community, showcasing public versus private dynamics.
Samoa Art and Social Organization Video 4
Family Compound
Each Samoan extended family owns land within the village.
Footpaths provide access to public and private areas, reinforcing borders between 'aiga (extended family lands).
Structures are organized hierarchically with a front-to-back orientation:
Front: More prestigious structures (e.g., guest fale, falesamoa).
Back: Less prestigious structures (e.g., falekuka, outbuildings).
Guests are welcomed to the front of the property, with more prominent buildings closest to pathways or public areas.
Village Malai
The Malae is a key public area for ritual exchanges and community gatherings.
High-status guest fale typically face the Malae, serving as the village's social and political nucleus.
Access and behavior control in the Malae reinforces its importance; specific actions are expected, especially during formal gatherings.
The ideal arrangement is circular with the Malae at the center, surrounded by where guest structures are located.
Importance of Edges
Social status is reflected in the village layout and within the family compounds.
Organization in Guest Fale: Interior spaces reflect ceremonies and social interactions.
Boundaries are acknowledged:
Shoes are removed when entering a fale.
Bow slightly and say "tolou" when passing between individuals.
Ornamentation enhances the edges of structures:
Flower gardens and decorations mark the boundary between inside and outside, emphasizing social prestige and identity.
Samoa Art and Social Organization - Video 5 Notes
Topics Covered
Chiefly Fono
Kava Ceremony
Significance of Gifts
Formats of Samoan Ceremonial Events
Fono - A formal gathering.
Malaga - Indicates a ceremonial visit or journey, resulting in a ritual meeting between groups.
Fono Structure
Location: Guest fale is the ideal indoor location for fono.
Architecture: Visually accessible design fosters transparency; all proceedings are open to view.
Seating Plan:
Seating arrangements reflect rank and status in a circular format.
Chiefs are seated according to rank facing each other, with a central open space.
High-rank leaders (ali'i) placed at the center.
Tulafale (orators) may sit at the front.
Lesser Lali'i and other rank holders seated accordingly.
Seating arrangements can express political statements, such as high chiefs lowering their perceived status.
Kava Ceremony
Purpose: Establishes or reinforces social ties; follows a structured seating arrangement akin to the fono.
Preparation: Conducted by the Taupou (ceremonial maiden) or Manaia (titled son) associated with an ali'i.
Process: Kava made from pepper plant roots, distributed in a ceremonial fashion following rank order.
Significance: Ties individuals together ceremonially, nullifying existing gaps in social relationships.
Role of Gifts
Gift-giving Context: Used to acknowledge or establish relationships; integral to rituals including fa'alavelave which signifies social ceremonies.
Types of Prestations:
Familial: Life-cycle events like funerals, title installations.
Village: Community projects or significant gatherings.
Presentation: Gifts displayed and proclaimed publicly, crossing spaces to link givers and receivers.
Social Roles: Reinforces and modifies social relationships; the nature of gifts varies by recipient rank and occasion significance, mirroring economic and social elements in Samoan culture.
Current Practice: Commonly distributed items include food, Hawaiian print cloth, and fine mats ('ie tonga).
Samoa Art and Social Organization - Artifacts and Cultural Practices Video 6
'Ie Toga
Definition: Finely woven mats made by women from pandanus plants, commonly referred to as fine mats.
Features: Traditionally loose fringe and a strip of red feathers (dyed chicken feathers today).
Importance: Among the most important items in Samoan culture (fa'asamoa).
Quality Assessment: Assessed by the weave's quality, softness, and shine.
Time to Craft: Superior items may take months to years to create; some strips narrow as 1/8 inch.
Functional Use: Not used for sitting; collected to give away as significant gifts.
Historical Significance: Some mats had names and genealogies; an example includes the mat presented to the Tongan Queen at Princess Salamasina's funeral.
Siapo (Bark Cloth)
Definition: Bark cloth made from the inner bark of the paper mulberry tree.
Historical Use: Traditionally prestigious, linked to various ceremonies, and used in dowries.
Production Process: Bark is scraped, pounded, layered, and dyed.
Design Techniques:
Immersion in dye or mud.
Freehand painting.
Smoking (traditionally for Manaia or Taupou).
Relief designs using a rubbing board (upeti) carved with designs.
Cultural Reflection: Symbolizes social ties and community engagement.
Transition of Material Culture
Decline of Traditional Textiles: From the 1970s onward, production of siapo declined, replaced by commercial cloth.
Factors for Change: Introduction of European textiles, the shift in cultural practices under missionary influence, and commercial textile availability.
Modern Ceremonial Contexts:
Gift-giving ceremonies (Sua) now often include commercial cloth instead of siapo.
Cloth from government purchases and tourist sales reflects contemporary status.
Changed Practices: Modern funerals and significant life events continue to utilize textiles, but often with commercial rather than traditional origins.
Social Connections through Textiles
Gift Exchange: Movement of cloth signifies social linking; represents existing and new social bonds.
Funeral Practices: Modern wrapping of deceased in fancy textiles instead of siapo; significant gestures connecting the living and the deceased.
Example: Attendees at funerals may present cloth to signify respect and acknowledge relationships, as seen during the funeral of Princess Salamasina.
Samoa Art and Social Organization - Dance Forms Video 7
Taualuga and Talolo
Overview: The dance forms Taualuga and Talolo reflect and reinforce social connections in Samoan culture, especially during significant events.
Moyle's Insight: Dance reveals the structures of Samoan social life and the patterns of behavior.
Shore's Observation: The dance floor acts as a microcosm of the village arena, emphasizing community formation.
Talolo Dance
Definition: A formal group presentation of food to a ranking chief, incorporating dance as an essential component.
Context: Typically occurs during the arrival of significant visiting parties (Malaga), symbolizing kinship with the host family/village.
Ceremony Setting: Takes place on the Malae in front of the guest fale where honored guests sit.
Leading Figures: Often led by the ranking high chief, Taupou (ceremonial maiden), and her attendants, dressed in full ritual attire including fine mats and Tuiga (headdress).
Tuiga: Traditionally represents high rank and aggression; adorned with feathers and other materials.
Performance Action: Includes turning and throwing of bush knives or clubs by the Taupou, symbolizing provocation during wartime.
Cultural Dynamics: The Talolo fosters social links; the approach of villagers during the dance symbolizes the merging of groups from opposite ends of the Malae.
Taualuga Dance
Definition: The term Taualuga translates to raising up a club or victory, indicating its competitive nature.
Performance Context: Usually concludes longer performances or significant social events (like weddings).
Dancer's Role: Traditionally performed by the son/daughter of a chief; today may include brides or important guests.
Dress and Presentation: Dancers adorn themselves with scented coconut oil and festive regalia, symbolizing prestige and status.
Audience Interaction: Money is placed on the floor to acknowledge the dancer's skill; while the Taualuga centers on grace, the surrounding tulafale engage in comical, audacious actions to show respect.
Cultural Reflection
Social Relationships: Connections are evident in gift-giving, communal dining, and dance performances.
Fluidity of Relationships: Social interactions and bonds are malleable, evolving through action, food sharing, and rituals.
Built Environment: The layout of guest fale and the village Malae illustrate the social organization, serving as venues for celebrating and forming new bonds.
Modernity and Tradition in Samoan Architecture
Introduction
Historical Context: French explorer La Perouse described Samoan houses in 1787, noting their intricate wooden structures, which showcased cultural sophistication similar to Western architecture in Paris.
Architectural Significance: Indigenous Samoan architecture, characterized by complex wooden systems and the use of natural materials, is now increasingly rare.
Cultural Evolution: The evolution of architectural styles reflects Samoa's responses to external influences, including colonialism and independence.
Indigenous Architectural Forms
Fale: The general Samoan term for built structures; historically significant forms include:
Fale Tele: Oval-shaped, often seen as prestigious.
Fale Afolau: Elongated style, utilized for elite residences and guesthouses.
Construction Characteristics:
Wall-less and single-room structures made from wood lashed with coconut fiber and thatched with coconut leaves.
Features include a loose stone foundation and unique roof supports.
Historical Evidence
Archaeological Findings: Remains of ancient structures (2000-3000 years old) are found, aligning with descriptions by early explorers.
Evolution Over Time: Early accounts indicate a preference for oval houses during European contact, with the introduction of the fale afolau occurring later.
Colonial Impact: By the late 19th century, Western influences emerged, with houses incorporating features such as walls, marking a significant shift.
Colonial Change: Politics and Religion
Missionary Influence: John Williams advocated for Samoan-style churches, leading to a fusion of indigenous and Western architectural elements.
Emergence of Fale Palagi: Structures with walls began appearing, symbolizing a shift towards Western norms amidst colonial rule.
Center of Political Activity: Architectural changes were mostly seen in urban areas like Apia, where elite families integrated Western styles for political prestige.
World War II: A Turning Point
Architectural Boom: World War II exposed Samoans to Western affluence and prompted the construction of guest fale employing traditional designs.
Migration and Change: The war facilitated emigration and greater access to foreign building materials, influencing post-war architectural trends.
Independence and Post-War Changes
Architectural Diversity: After gaining independence in 1962, Samoa experienced increased cultural exchange with new building styles emerging alongside traditional forms.
Guesthouses and Residences: While guest houses maintained indigenous characteristics, residential architecture began to incorporate Western technologies and styles.
Continuity and Change in Architecture
Spatial Dynamics: Open guesthouses retain cultural meaning, emphasizing social interactions and rituals through their design.
Fale Palagi: Enclosed buildings symbolize Western influence yet reflect indigenous spatial organization, demonstrating a blend of tradition and modernity.
Cultural Markers: Architectural styles act as indicators of family status and identity, with distinctions made between indigenous (fale samoa) and foreign (fale palagi) elements.
Conclusion
Reactive Objectification: The ongoing dialogue between traditional Samoan architecture and Western influences shapes cultural identity.
Indicators of Identity: Today, both open and enclosed structures signify family stature, reflecting the dynamic interplay between tradition and modernity in contemporary Samoan society.
Introduction to Polynesian and Micronesian Art
Interior support figure (poutokomanawa) of the Maori house Te Hauki-Turanga carved by Raharuhi Rukupo in 1842.
The Pacific Ocean covers one-third of the earth's surface, inhabited by hundreds of cultural groups, including Polynesia and Micronesia.
Art exploration in this region requires selectivity due to the diversity and shared conventions in arts spanning historical and modern traditions.
Oceanic Art Overview
Oceanic art includes diverse artistic traditions across Australia, New Guinea, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.
Indonesian arts are related yet distinct from Oceanic arts.
Focus mainly on visual arts; however, music, dance, and oral literature reflect aesthetic, social, and religious themes.
Oceania comprises about 25,000 islands; 1,500 inhabited by culturally diverse peoples speaking numerous languages and dialects.
Historical Migration
Migration to the Pacific began approximately 50,000 years ago from Southeast Asia, raising questions of timing, reasons, and methods of travel.
During the Ice Age, lower sea levels made islands larger and distances between them shorter; Sahul Land blocked passage to the Pacific.
Cultures diversified into Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia; interaction resulted in the exchange of domesticated animals and plants.
The Lapita Cultural Complex
Significant archaeological culture known as the Lapita complex spread from the Bismarck Archipelago into Polynesia, distinguished by specific ceramic decorations.
Ancestral cultures diversified into current Melanesian, Micronesian, and Polynesian groups.
European Impact on Art
During the 18th and 19th centuries, European explorers and missionaries acquired Polynesian and Micronesian artworks, now found in international collections.
Artworks from the past still influence 21st-century art; contemporary artists blend traditional themes with modern aesthetics.
New forms build upon traditional knowledge through innovative practices rather than mere replication.
Geographic Diversity in Polynesia
Polynesia, a triangular region east of the international dateline, includes significant islands from Hawai'i to Easter Island and New Zealand.
Islands include both large, mountainous areas and small coral atolls, impacting cultural and artistic expressions.
Polynesia subdivided into West Polynesia, Polynesian outliers, and East Polynesia, with unique languages and cultures in each area.
Despite a cultural and artistic homogeneity, each island group maintains distinct traditions and social organizations.
Migration Patterns and Social Structures
Ancestral Lapita peoples migrated from Fiji into Polynesia around 4,000 years ago, evolving sociopolitical systems into chiefdoms.
Exploration of East Polynesia occurred from 1 CE to 800 CE, influenced by navigation knowledge and resource management.
Social Norms: Mana and Tapu
Concepts of mana (supernatural power) and tapu (sacredness) shape societal hierarchy and rituals, affecting status, power, and prestige.
Sociopolitical stratification leads to visual symbols of hierarchy, impacting art and its role in maintaining social distinctions.
Art and Inequality in Polynesia
Art represents societal values, prestige, and rank, embedding inequality into the aesthetic of Polynesian art forms.
Objects serve as historical chronicles and are intertwined with social interactions and ceremonial significance.
Influence of Western Culture
Contact with the Western world from late 18th century influenced Polynesian artistic traditions, incorporating new materials and ideas into local practices.
Technological advances from metal tools expanded the possibilities of artwork while challenging traditional aesthetics.
The introduction of Christianity significantly altered the focus of religious artistry and practices.
Aesthetic Traditions
Traditional Polynesian culture did not categorize arts in a separable manner; all creative expressions held communal significance.
Skills and indirectness, or layered meanings, characterize Polynesian artistic expression, requiring context to appreciate fully.
Diverse Artforms in Polynesia
Art forms divided into categories: organization of space, architecture, carving traditions, textiles, body ornamentation, oral arts, music, and dance.
Organization of Space
Space organization reveals societal structures, where layout reflects aesthetics and social hierarchies through architecture.
Houses serve as symbols of power and status within Polynesian communities.
Carving Traditions
Three-dimensional sculptures predominant in various regions, showcasing cultural uniqueness in style and form.
Importance of human sculpture varies across regions, with notable stone and wood carvings demonstrating sacred narratives.
Fibre and Textile Arts
Textile arts constitute a significant aspect of Polynesian art, often considered equal to carving.
Women primarily engage in textile production, representing cultural identities through woven materials.
Body Ornamentation and Personal Adornment
Tattooing, feather adornments, shell ornaments, and intricate designs reflect social status and cultural beliefs.
Oral, Musical, and Movement Arts
Oral traditions remain integral to Polynesian culture, blending storytelling with musical composition.
Dance serves to narrate, emphasize, and visualize poetry, maintaining cultural expressions and traditions.
Micronesia Overview
Micronesia, consisting of various islands and cultural subgroups, exhibits diverse ecological adaptations and artistic expressions.
Key cultural features include content based on sea resources, navigation, and traditional practices shaped by historical events.
Ecological and Social Structures in Micronesia
Micronesian islands have differing social systems influenced by resource availability and cultural interactions.
Artistic expressions focus more on form and functionality than sheer volume, with emphasis on intimacy with the sea in ceremonial practices.
Conclusion
Polynesian and Micronesian art illustrates the evolution of cultural identities, managing traditional forms alongside modern influences.
Ongoing adaptations reflect the societies' responses to changing environments, global connections, and internal developments.
Polynesian Ceremonial Redistribution]
Overview
Large-scale redistributions regularly occur in many parts of Polynesia.
Various goods are mobilized for important social occasions.
Limited studies exist, notable works include Firth's studies on Maori and Tikopia and Sahlins' overview on Polynesian chiefdoms.
Objectives of the Article
Contribute to literature on Polynesian redistributive systems with a preliminary account of ceremonial redistributive events in contemporary Western Samoa.
Examine processes involved in the classic conception of redistribution.
Social Framework of Redistributive Activity
Three important social units in ceremonial redistributions in Samoa:
Cognatic Descent Groups ('aiga)
Incumbents of Titled Offices (matai)
Households
'Aiga Descent Groups
Non-exogamous corporate descent groups that are cognatic, meaning individuals can trace their relation through either male or female lines.
Membership is optative; individuals can belong to multiple 'diga descent groups, but may not maintain ties actively due to economic obligations.
Residential patterns include geographic dispersal, but core residential groups are often found on the 'aiga estate.
Titles
Each 'diga has unique titles and an internal hierarchy of titles, with the highest being that of the group's founder.
Titles are filled by consensus and incumbents are often referred to as matai (chief), crucial in regulating the affairs of descent groups.
Households
Defined as residential and commensal units sharing domestic activities.
Households can be nuclear or stem families, often engaging in subsistence and cash crop agriculture.
Each associated household is expected to maintain agricultural productivity for both consumption and redistributive contributions.
Economic Activities
Subsistence agriculture and cash cropping are primary occupations, with notable crops including bananas, coconuts, and cacao.
Daily economic activities are supervised by the household head and spouses, with responsibilities distributed among members.rtunities for salaried employment in many Western Samoan villages are
limited primarily to teaching positions in village and district level schools,
although the number and variety of wage jobs are correspondingly greater
for residents of villages located near the government administrativecenter of
Apia.
Every village household maintains breadfruit trees in addition to taro,
coconut, and banana plantations for their domestic needs. These same
plantations also produce the foodstuffs used for contributionsin redistributive
activities as well. During a typical weekday, villages are practicallydeserted;
only the elderly, the sick, and the very young, along with a few women to
attend them, are to be found at home. All able-bodied males in the house-
hold generally leave for the plantations in the early morning and return home
in the late afternoon or at dusk, while those household members who have
wage jobs work their plantations on their days off from regular employment.
Women also engage in subsistence activities, although the extent of their
plantation labor is circumscribedby child care responsibilitiesand the routine
of household tasks.
The daily economic round of household subsistence activities is supervised
by the household head and his wife. The untitled men and junior rank-
ing matai of the household will be told what tasks are to be performed that
day, while the wife of the household head supervises the females in their
child care, weaving, sewing, cooking, laundering, and other domestic activ-
ities. A household constitutes an autonomous economic unit, and every
household associated with an 'diga residential core is expected to grow suf-
ficient taro, bananas, and breadfruit for its domestic consumption as well
as to maintain pigs and chickens. The incumbent of an 'diga's senior title
has no authority to tell household personnel attached to his residential core
what to plant, although they will at least listen respectfully to the advice of
their matai. However, chiefly counsel is not always heeded.
In short, the presence of cognatic descent groups has important structural
implications for Samoan social organization. Individuals maintain multiple
'diga memberships and change residences whenever they feel it to be eco-
nomically or politically advantageous to do so. An individual may, for
instance, choose to reside with an 'diga in a village that is located near the
administrative area of Apia in order to seek employment opportunities, or
perhaps an individual will choose to reside with an 'diga where he feels his
potential candidacy for a matai title would be strongly considered by 'diga
constituents. An 'diga'smembership consists of those localized codescendants
who occupy the group's estate and those who are geographically dispersed
throughout the islands and reside on other 'diga estates or abroad.Incumbents
of titled offices are elected by 'diga members and are entrusted with regulat-
ing the corporate affairs of their respective descent group
Opportunities for Employment
Opportunities for salaried employment in many Western Samoan villages are primarily limited to teaching positions in village and district level schools.
Residents of villages near the government administrative center of Apia have access to a greater variety of wage jobs.
Agricultural Practices
Every village household maintains:
Breadfruit trees
Taro, coconut, and banana plantations for domestic needs
These plantations also produce foodstuffs used for redistributive activities.
On a typical weekday:
Villages are mostly deserted, with only the elderly, sick, and very young present.
Able-bodied males leave for the plantations early in the morning and return home late in the afternoon.
Those with wage jobs work on the plantations during their days off.
Role of Women
Women participate in subsistence activities, though their labor is limited by childcare responsibilities and household tasks.
Daily economic activities are supervised by:
The household head
His wife supervises domestic activities such as childcare, weaving, sewing, cooking, and laundering.
Household Structure
Each household is an autonomous economic unit, expected to:
Produce sufficient taro, bananas, and breadfruit for its own consumption
Maintain livestock like pigs and chickens.
The senior title holder of an 'diga group cannot dictate what household members should plant, but they will generally respect their matai's advice.
Social Structure
Cognatic descent groups play a crucial role in Samoan social structure:
Individuals can hold multiple 'diga memberships
They can change residences based on economic or political advantages:
e.g., living near Apia for job opportunities
opting for an 'diga that supports their candidacy for a matai title.
Membership consists of:
Localized co-descendants residing on the group's estate
Members dispersed throughout the islands and abroad.
Incumbents of titled offices are elected by 'diga members to regulate corporate affairs.