Latin I Final Review: Studeāmus!

Fundamental Properties of Latin Verbs

• Conjugated Verb Attributes: Verbs in Latin possess five distinct characteristics:

  • Mood: Can be Indicative, Imperative, or Subjunctive (Infinitives also exist).

  • Person: Indicates who is performing the action.

  • Tense: Six tenses are present: Present, Imperfect, Future, Future Perfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect.

  • Voice: Can be Active or Passive.

  • Number: Singular or Plural.

• Transitive Verbs: These verbs take a direct object. Example: "They build a road."

• Intransitive Verbs: These verbs do not take a direct object. Example: "Claudia stays in the water."

The Present System of Verbs

• The Present System includes the present, imperfect, and future tenses.

• Present Indicative Formation:

  • Active Voice: Take the present stem and add present active endings: $\bar{o}, s, t, mus, tis, nt$.

    • For $1^{st}, 2^{nd},$ and $4^{th}$ conjugations, the Present Stem = Infinitive minus $-re$.

    • For $3^{rd}$ conjugation, the Present Stem = $1^{st}$ Principal Part minus $-o$.

    • Translation: verb(s), is/are verbing, does/do verb.

  • Passive Voice: Take the present stem and add present passive endings: $or/r, ris, tur, mur, min\bar{i}, ntur$.

    • The stem rules for Passive are the same as Active for each conjugation.

    • Translation: is/are (being) verbed.

• Present Active Paradigm:

  • $1^{st}$ (amō): am-ō, amā-s, ama-t, amā-mus, amā-tis, ama-nt

  • $2^{nd}$ (doceō): doce-ō, docē-s, doce-t, docē-mus, docē-tis, doce-nt

  • $3^{rd}$ (ponō): pon-ō, pon-is, pon-it, pon-imus, pon-itis, pon-unt

  • $3^{rd}$-io (capiō): capi-ō, capi-s, capi-t, capi-mus, capi-tis, capi-unt

  • $4^{th}$ (audiō): audi-ō, audē-s, audi-t, audē-mus, audē-tis, audi-unt

• Present Passive Paradigm:

  • $1^{st}$: am-or, amā-ris, amā-tur, amā-mur, amā-minī, ama-ntur

  • $2^{nd}$: doce-or, docē-ris, docē-tur, docē-mur, docē-minī, doce-ntur

  • $3^{rd}$: pon-or, pon-ē-ris (asterisk noted: becomes short e in pronunciation but stem changes), pon-itur, pon-imur, pon-iminī, pon-untur

  • $3^{rd}$-io: capi-or, capē-ris, capi-tur, capi-mur, capi-minī, capi-untur

  • $4^{th}$: audi-or, audī-ris, audī-tur, audī-mur, audī-minī, audi-untur

The Imperfect Indicative Tense

• Imperfect Active Formation:

  • Process: Take the present stem and add endings: $bam, bās, bat, bāmus, bātis, bant$.

  • Buffer Rule: For $3^{rd}, 3^{rd}$ io, and $4^{th}$ conjugations, add a buffer $-ē-$ before the ending.

  • Translation: was/were verbing, used to verb, kept on verbing. It expresses habitual, continuous, or repeated action in past time.

• Imperfect Passive Formation:

  • Process: Take the present stem and add endings: $bar, bāris, bātur, bāmur, bāminī, bantur$.

  • The buffer rule for $3^{rd}, 3^{rd}$ io, and $4^{th}$ applies here as well.

  • Translation: was verbed, used to be verbed, kept on being verbed.

• Imperfect Active Paradigm (Examples):

  • $1^{st}:$ amā-bam, amā-bās, amā-bat, …

  • $3^{rd}:$ pon-ē-bam, pon-ē-bās, pon-ē-bat, …

  • $4^{th}:$ audi-ē-bam, audi-ē-bās, audi-ē-bat, …

The Future Indicative Tense

• Mnemonic Systems:

  • "Bo, bi, bu" for $1^{st}$ and $2^{nd}$ conjugations.

  • "A and E" (Ham and $5$ Eggs) for $3^{rd}$ and $4^{th}$ conjugations.

• Future Active Formation:

  • $1^{st}$ and $2^{nd}$ endings: $bō, bis, bit, bimus, bitis, bunt$.

  • $3^{rd}$ and $4^{th}$ endings: $am, ēs, et, ēmus, ētis, ent$.

  • Translation: will verb, shall verb.

• Future Passive Formation:

  • $1^{st}$ and $2^{nd}$ endings: $bor, beris, bitur, bimur, biminī, buntur$.

  • $3^{rd}$ and $4^{th}$ endings: $ar, ēris, ētur, ēmur, ēminī, entur$.

  • Translation: will be verbed, shall be verbed.

The Perfect System of Verbs

• The Perfect System includes the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect tenses.

• Perfect Indicative Active:

  • Stem: Take the perfect stem ($3^{rd}$ principal part minus $-i$).

  • Endings: $i, istī, it, imus, istis, ērunt$.

  • Translation: verbed, has/have verbed, did verb (completed action in past time).

• Perfect Indicative Passive:

  • Formation: Take the $4^{th}$ principal part (Perfect Passive Participle/PPP) and add the present tense of sum, esse as a separate word ($sum, es, est, sumus, estis, sunt$).

  • The PPP declines like a $1^{st}/2^{nd}$ declension adjective.

  • Translation: was verbed, has/have been verbed.

• Pluperfect Indicative Active:

  • Formation: Perfect stem + imperfect forms of sum, esse as endings ($eram, erās, erat, erāmus, erātis, erant$).

  • Translation: had verbed.

• Pluperfect Indicative Passive:

  • Formation: PPP + imperfect tense of sum, esse as a separate word ($eram, erās, erat, erāmus, erātis, erant$).

  • Translation: had been verbed.

• Future Perfect Indicative Active:

  • Formation: Perfect stem + endings ($erō, eris, erit, erimus, eritis, erint$).

  • Translation: will have verbed.

• Future Perfect Indicative Passive:

  • Formation: PPP + future tense of sum, esse ($erō, eris, erit, erimus, eritis, erunt$).

  • Translation: will have been verbed.

Imperatives

• Active Voice:

  • Singular: Typically the present stem (e.g., amā!, docē!, audī!). For $3^{rd}$ and $3^{rd}$ io, it is the infinitive minus $-re$ (e.g., pōne!).

  • Plural: Add $-te$ to the present stem (e.g., amāte!). In $3^{rd}$ and $3^{rd}$ io, add $-ite$ to the stem (e.g., pōnite!).

  • Irregulars: dīcc, dūcc, fac, fer (plural: dīcite, dūcite, facite, ferte).

  • Negative: Use nolī (sg) or nolīte (pl) before the infinitive.

• Passive Voice:

  • Singular: Same form as the present active infinitive (e.g., amāre! = be loved!).

  • Plural: Same form as the $2^{nd}$ person plural present passive indicative (e.g., amāminī! = y’all be loved!).

The Subjunctive Mood

• Primary Functions: Primarily used in subordinate (dependent) clauses to express command, purpose, result, characteristic, indirect question, or circumstance. As a main verb, it expresses possibility or wish.

• Present Subjunctive Formation:

  • Mnemonic: "Let’s Beat That Giant Liar!" or "She Wears a Giant Diamond!"

  • Vowel Changes: $1^{st}: e; 2^{nd}: ea; 3^{rd}: a; 3^{rd} io/4^{th}: ia$.

  • Add personal endings: (Active) $m, s, t, mus, tis, nt$; (Passive) $r, ris, tur, mur, mini, ntur$.

• Imperfect Subjunctive Formation:

  • Formula: Present Active Infinitive ($2^{nd}$ principal part) + personal endings ($m, s, t, mus, tis, nt$ or $r, ris, tur, mur, mini, ntur$).

• Perfect Subjunctive Formation:

  • Active: Perfect Active Stem + endings $erim, erīs, erit, erīmus, erītis, erint$.

  • Passive: PPP + present active subjunctive of esse ($sim, sĦs, sit, sĦmus, sĦtis, sint$).

• Pluperfect Subjunctive Formation:

  • Active: Perfect Active Stem + endings $issem, issēs, isset, issēmus, issētis, issent$.

  • Passive: PPP + imperfect active subjunctive of esse ($essem, essēs, esset, essēmus, essētis, essent$).

Subjunctive Uses

• Independent Uses:

  • Jussive Subjunctive: Uses $3^{rd}$ person or $1^{st}$ person plural present subjunctive. Translation: "let us/him/them verb" or "may they verb." Negative is nē.

• Dependent Uses:

  • Purpose Clauses: Introduced by ut (so that) or nē (lest/so that…not).

  • Indirect Command: Follows verbs of asking, ordering, or persuading. Uses ut/nē. (Note: iubēre and vetāre take accusative + infinitive instead).

  • Indirect Question: Introduced by an interrogative word. Subjunctive verb is translated indicatively.

  • Cum Clauses: Introduced by cum (meaning when, since, or although). Frequently uses imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive.

Sequence of Tenses

• Primary Tenses: (Present, Future, Present Perfect, Future Perfect indicative) trigger Present (for incomplete action) or Perfect (for completed action) subjunctive.

• Secondary Tenses: (Imperfect, Past Perfect, Pluperfect indicative) trigger Imperfect (for incomplete action) or Pluperfect (for completed action) subjunctive.

Participles and Infinitives

• Participles (Verbal Adjectives):

  • Present Active: Stem + $-ns, -ntis$. Translation: "verbing."

  • Perfect Passive: $4^{th}$ PP + $-us, -a, -um$. Translation: "having been verbed."

  • Future Active: $4^{th}$ PP stem + $-urus, -a, -um$. Translation: "about to/going to verb."

  • Future Passive (Gerundive): Present stem + $-ndus, -a, -um$. Often carries the idea of necessity (e.g., agenda = things that must be done).

• Infinitives:

  • Present Active: $2^{nd}$ principal part. Translation: "to verb."

  • Present Passive: $-rī$ for $1^{st}, 2^{nd}, 4^{th}$; change $-ere$ to $-i$ for $3^{rd}$.

  • Functions: Can be the subject of a verb (gender is always neuter), the object of a verb, or a complementary infinitive.

Irregular Verbs

• Sum, Esse, Fuī, Futūrus (to be):

  • Present: sum, es, est, sumus, estis, sunt.

  • Subjunctive Present: sim, sĦs, sit, …

  • Subjunctive Imperfect: essem, essēs, esset, …

• Possum, Posse, Potuī (to be able): Compound of sum. Present: possum, potes, potest, possumus, potestis, possunt.

• Ferō, Ferre, Tulī, Lātus (to carry): Present Active: ferō, fers, fert, ferimus, fertis, ferunt. Subjunctive Imperfect: ferrem.

• Volō, Velle, Voluī (to wish): Present Active: volō, vĦs, vult, volumus, vultis, volunt.

• Nōlō, Nōlle, Nōluī (to be unwilling): nōlō, nōn vĦs, nōn vult…

• Mālō, Mālle, Māluī (to prefer): mālō, māvĦs, māvult…

• Eō, Ħre, Iī/Ivī, Itūrus (to go): Present Active: eō, Ħs, it, Ħmus, Ħtis, eunt.

Deponent Verbs

• Definition: Verbs that are passive in form but active in meaning.

• Principal Parts Examples:

  • $1^{st}:$ Cōnor, cōnārī, conātus sum (I try).

  • $3^{rd}:$ Sequor, sequī, secūtus sum (I follow).

• Exceptions: Participles and infinitives translate actively. The present active and future active participles form regularly despite the verb being deponent.

Nouns and Declensions

• Gender, Number, Case: Nouns belong to one of five declensions. Stem found by removing the genitive singular ending.

• $1^{st}$ Declension: Mostly feminine. Exceptions: PPAIN nouns (pirāta, poēta, agricola, incola, nauta).

• $2^{nd}$ Declension: Masculine ($-us, -er, -ir$) or Neuter ($-um$). Follows the Neuter Law.

• $3^{rd}$ Declension: Masculine, Feminine, or Neuter.

  • i-stem Rules:

    • SS Rule: Parisyllabic nouns like nāvis, nāvis.

    • CC Rule: Stem ends in two consonants (e.g., mōns, montis).

    • Neuter i-stems (AL-AR-E): Nouns ending in -al, -ar, or -e (e.g., mare, animal).

• $4^{th}$ Declension: Mostly masculine. Exceptions: domus (home) and manus (hand).

• $5^{th}$ Declension: Feminine. Exception: diēs (can be masculine).

Adjectives and Comparison

• Agreement: An adjective must agree with its noun in gender, number, and case, but not necessarily in declension.

• Substantives: Adjectives used without a noun where the noun is understood (e.g., multa = many things).

• Pronominal Adjectives (UNUS NAUTA): Irregular genitive singular in $-Ħus$ and dative singular in $-Ħ$. Includes: ūnus, nūllus, ūllus, sōlus, neuter, alius, uter, tōtus, alter.

• Degrees of Comparison:

  • Comparative: Stem + $-ior$ (M/F) or $-ius$ (N). Translation: "-er, more, rather, too, quite."

  • Superlative: Stem + $-issimus, -a, -um$. Translation: "-est, most, very."

    • Exceptions: $-lis$ adjectives add $-limus$; $-er$ adjectives add $-rimus$ to the nominative masculine singular.

• Comparative Declension: Comparatives decline like regular $3^{rd}$ declension nouns (not i-stems).

• Adverbs:

  • $1^{st}/2^{nd}$ declension: add $-ē$ (positive), $-ius$ (comparative), $-issimē$ (superlative).

  • $3^{rd}$ declension: add $-iter$ or $-er$ (positive).

Pronouns and Question Structures

• Demonstratives: is (this/that/he/she/it), hic (this), ille (that), Ħdem (same).

• Intensive vs Reflexive: ipse (himself - emphasis); suī, sibi, sē, sē (himself - refers back to subject).

• Relative Pronouns: Agreement rule: matches antecedent in gender and number; case determined by its function in the clause.

• Interrogatives: Pronouns (Quis?) stand alone; Adjectives (Quī puer?) describe a noun.

• Asking Questions:

  • -ne: General yes/no.

  • nonne: Expects a "yes" answer.

  • num: Expects a "no" answer.

Grammar Constructions and Case Uses

• Ablative Absolute: Two or more words (usually noun + participle) in the ablative case, loosely connected to the sentence. Example: "HĦs verbĦs dictĦs" (With these words having been spoken).

• Case Summary:

  • Nominative: Subject, Predicate Nominative, Subject Complement.

  • Genitive: Possession, Objective, Partitive, Description, Value.

  • Dative: Indirect Object.

  • Accusative: Direct Object, Place To Which, Extent of Space/Time.

  • Ablative: Place From Which, Separation, Place Where, Time When/Within, Means/Instrument, Accompaniment ($cum$), Agent ($ā/ab$), Manner, Respect, Description, Origin, Degree of Difference, Price.

  • Vocative: Direct Address.