Chapter 10
The Politics of Democracy
Ordinary American men began asserting their right to participate in government affairs.
Politicians started catering to the preferences and prejudices of these ordinary citizens.
Aspiring political candidates communicated their messages to voters in various settings from rural hamlets to large towns.
An illustration from George Caleb Bingham’s Stump Speaking (1855) depicts a well-dressed politician on a makeshift stage appealing to an audience of affluent gentlemen and local farmers, highlighting the engagement in political discourse.
PART 4: OVERLAPPING REVOLUTIONS, 1800–1860
The Rise of Popular Politics, 1810–1828
The expansion of the franchise (the right to vote) became a significant symbol of the Democratic Revolution.
By the 1830s, most states had allowed nearly all white men to vote; this level of political influence for ordinary farmers and wage earners was unparalleled globally.
For comparison, the English Reform Bill of 1832 extended voting rights to only 600,000 out of 6 million men, only 10% of the male populace.
The Decline of the Notables and the Rise of Parties
Although the American Revolution diminished the elite-driven society from the colonial era, it did not completely abolish it.
Only two states, Pennsylvania and Vermont, initially enabled all male taxpayers to vote; many lower-status families continued to defer to wealthier families.
Wealthy notables (northern landlords, slave-owning planters, seaport merchants) dominated the new republic’s political framework.
John Jay, the 1st Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, stated, "Those who own the country are the most suitable persons to participate in the government of it."
The elite manipulated local elections by fostering dependencies, such as through lending practices and treating tenants to alcoholic beverages.
A modest investment (e.g., $20 for refreshments) could yield substantial electoral returns (approximately 100 votes).
This gentry-dominated system restricted political office access to men lacking wealth and social connections.
The Rise of Democracy
In the 1810s, reformers in Maryland argued against property qualifications for voting, calling them a form of “tyranny” that privileged one class over another.
Legislative grudging acceptance of a broader franchise reflected a response to these challenges, often leading to surprising electoral outcomes against the elite.
Newly enfranchised voters tended to favor modestly dressed candidates who promoted popular governance, rejecting aristocratic vestments and trends.
New states, including Indiana (1816), Illinois (1818), and Alabama (1819), adopted constitutions that included broad male suffrage, leading to the election of middle-class individuals in local government roles.
There was a notable shift where regular men were elected into offices that traditionally housed the elite, which influenced important legislative actions such as reducing debt imprisonment, limiting taxes, and expanding land access for squatters.
By mid-1820s, many state legislatures had extended voting rights to all white men or taxpaying militia members, with only a few states like North Carolina, Virginia, and Rhode Island maintaining property requirements.
Systematic Political Reforms
Between 1818 and 1821, states like Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York reformed their constitutions to redistribute legislative districts based on population and to require popular elections for judges.
Political activity became marked by contention, attracting ambitious men and often leading to corruption.
Notable entrepreneurs and speculators demanded government favors, and instances of bribery to secure land grants were recorded abundantly.
In New York City, for instance, the Seventh Ward Bank received a charter and allocated significant portions of its stock strategically to influential figures, with only 40 shares reserved for public distribution.
The Role of Political Parties
The emergence of political parties furnished a structure for political debates over governance and policy.
Initially, political factions were viewed unfavorably by revolutionary-era Americans.
However, as the era progressed, disciplined political parties began reshaping the political landscape, typically managed by professional politicians, often from middle-class backgrounds
Martin Van Buren is recognized as a primary architect of the new party dynamics, advocating for a political framework grounded in party identity rather than familial ties.
Van Buren argued that political parties were essential for free governance and mitigating abuse of power by officials.
The Election of 1824
The advances made in political democracy in various states weakened the former elite-led political structure.
By the time the 1824 presidential election occurred, five candidates had emerged from the fractured Republican Party, which was experiencing noticeable divisions following the War of 1812.
Candidates included:
John Quincy Adams, Secretary of State and son of former President John Adams.
John C. Calhoun, Secretary of War.
William H. Crawford, Secretary of the Treasury.
Henry Clay, Speaker of the House of Representatives.
Andrew Jackson, a senator from Tennessee.
John Quincy Adams was nominated by the Republican caucus but faced challenges from candidates who appealed directly to the electorate.
The election rules mandated by the Twelfth Amendment required the House of Representatives to select the president from the top three electoral candidates as no one secured a majority.
Electoral vote tally:
Andrew Jackson: 99
John Quincy Adams: 84
William H. Crawford: 41
Henry Clay: 37
The House ultimately selected Adams, leading to accusations of a “corrupt bargain” by Jackson’s supporters, especially when Adams appointed Clay as Secretary of State.
John Quincy Adams’s Presidency
Adams proposed ambitious national programs to promote virtues and improvements like a national university, scientific exploration, and comprehensive measures for commerce and credit management.
His endorsement of Clay's American System undermined the ideological foundation laid by Jacksonians, as it sought to consolidate economic power in Washington.
Opposition to his presidency included concerns over elitism; contemporary criticisms likened Adams's policies to those of a privileged aristocracy.
The Tariff and Economic Policy Implications
The Tariff of 1816 imposed duties on imports, benefiting northern producers but drawing ire from primary agricultural Southern communities, leading to a growing antipathy toward protective tariffs.
The issue of tariffs became highly politicized, with factions emerging along regional lines, contributing significantly to the South's sense of economic disenfranchisement.
The Nullification Crisis and South Carolina
South Carolina’s opposition followed in 1832, where state leaders openly defied federal tariffs, adopting an Ordinance of Nullification that claimed federal laws were void within its borders, citing constitutional arguments.
The conflict escalated, with Jackson emphasizing federal authority while maintaining dialogue with Southern concerns about economic burdens imposed by federal tariffs.
The Bank War
The struggle over the Second Bank of the United States led to political ramifications, where Jackson vehemently opposed its influence, viewing it as detrimental to individual liberties and state powers.
Jackson's eventual veto of rechartering the bank in 1832 solidified the conflict, as he framed his opposition on constitutional grounds and class interest rhetoric.
Jackson’s decisive actions against the bank facilitated an ideological shift concerning governmental powers and individual rights.
Indian Removal Policies
The Indian Removal Act of 1830 formalized the U.S. government's strategy to displace Native Americans from ancestral lands, with implementation showcasing systemic violence during forced migrations.
These displacements highlighted the cultural and territorial struggle occurring in America, reflecting broader societal ideologies as states sought economic expansion at the expense of Indigenous peoples.