Research Methodology and Proposal Design: Comprehensive Study Notes

Methodology: The "How" of the Research Proposal

• Methodology serves as the central explanation of how a researcher intends to execute their proposed study.

• It provides the structural framework for the proposal, transitioning from identified gaps in research to the practical application of investigative tools.

Qualitative Research Methodology

• General Definition: Qualitative research focuses on identifying themes, observing human behavior, and understanding social contexts without relying primarily on numerical data or statistical crunching.

• Core Objectives: To discover, describe, and interpret phenomena. It is exploratory in nature.

• Data Characteristics: Analysis is based on narratives, words, concepts, pictures, objects, dialectic factors, and contextual details.

• Example Case Study: An ethnographer conducted a study by observing children (boys and girls) on playgrounds over a period of $10$ years.

  • Specific Observations: She noted when elementary schoolers began to "gender themselves" and separate based on gender groups.

  • Gendered Dynamics: She observed when boys gravitated toward sports and girls toward other playground roles.

  • Methodological Note: This study did not rely on interviews or surveys from parents but purely on the researcher's observation of natural social nature.

• Researcher Involvement: In qualitative research, the researcher is inherently part of the process.

  • Subjectivity is unavoidable because the researcher's sociopolitical, cultural, and personal context influences how they interpret what others say or do.

  • There is no way to completely separate the researcher from the qualitative policy of work.

• Settings: Typically takes place in natural, less controlled settings where people are already navigating their lives.

• Methods/Instruments:

  • Interviews.

  • Focus groups.

  • Social observations.

  • Document analysis.

• Setting the Enviornment: Qualitative researchers often use familiar settings to increase participant comfort. For example, when interviewing school staff, the researcher might use the staff lounge and provide coffee or cookies to create a shared, comfortable space.

• Sample Size and Generalizability:

  • Sample sizes are typically small.

  • It is nearly impossible to conduct deep interviews with a large number of people (e.g., $1000$ people) in a short timeframe (e.g., $6$ months).

  • Low generalizability: Quantitative randomization is not used because qualitative work focuses on specific questions for specific populations.

Quantitative Research Methodology

• General Definition: Quantitative research focuses on measurement, statistical analysis, and objective outcome orientation.

• Core Objectives: To measure, explain, and predict differences in relationships. It is descriptive, experimental, and explanatory.

• Data Characteristics: Analysis is based on numbers and statistics. It is considered "context-free" in the sense that the numbers themselves are logical units, even if context is added during the writing phase.

• Researcher Role: The researcher conducts the work but does not become part of the research itself. It aims for objectivity.

• Settings: Preferentially uses controlled, experimental settings.

• Statistical Logic: There are many ways to reduce researcher bias in quantitative science because the designs are structured to minimize personal perception.

• Sample Size and Generalizability:

  • Requires larger sample sizes.

  • Uses random sampling to ensure generalizability.

  • Ideal Standard: A sample that matches the racial and demographic profiles of the overall US population is highly beneficial for generalizability.

• Instruments:

  • Tests.

  • Measures.

  • Questionnaires/Surveys.

  • Pre-post studies.

  • Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies.

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

• Inductive Reasoning (Specific to General):

  • Often associated with qualitative research.

  • The researcher finds small details and uses them to draw a broader conclusion (like a detective).

  • Example: Observing that Socrates was mortal and Sappho was mortal to induce the conclusion that humans are mortal.

  • Application: Identifying specific struggles in a school (e.g., truancy and hunger) through interviews to guide an overall theory of what is happening.

• Deductive Reasoning (General to Specific):

  • Classically aligned with quantitative research.

  • Starts with a large general idea or hypothesis and uses smaller details to justify or test that preconceived notion.

  • Pop Culture Reference: Sherlock Holmes is often cited as "deducing," but the lecturer argues he is actually "inducing" by taking small details to find a barrier of conclusion.

Four Major Types of Research Designs

• Exploratory Research:

  • Aims to identify if a real issue exists to provide data for future researchers.

  • Example Question: "Does Eugene, Oregon need more affordable housing?"

  • Process: Studying literature, local statistics, community reports, and assessments.

• Descriptive Research:

  • Aims to provide in-depth insight into a specific situation using comparisons and representative samples.

  • Example Question: "Are proposals for high-density affordable housing unappealing to high-SES (Socioeconomic Status) property owners due to stigma against poverty?"

  • NIMBY (Not In My Backyard): A term used to describe residents who may support progressive ideals in theory but oppose specific developments in their own neighborhoods.

• Explanatory (Experimental) Research:

  • Assesses the effects of a program model or intervention by comparing outcomes between groups.

  • Causality Caution: True causality is extremely hard to prove. Most studies are correlation-based.

  • Design: Randomly assigning participants to an intervention group (e.g., $6$ weeks of therapy) and a control group, using pre-, mid-, and post-tests.

• Evaluative Research:

  • A combination of exploratory, descriptive, and experimental designs to monitor program progress.

  • Formative Evaluation: Monitoring progress during the program ("When the cook tastes the soup").

  • Summative Evaluation: Assessing the end result ("When the guests taste the soup").

Measurement Quality: Reliability and Validity

• Validity: Does the instrument measure what it claims to measure?

  • Constraint: Many assessments (e.g., for ADHD or Autism) were originally tested only on specific populations. If a tool hasn't been tested on your target demographic, it may not be valid for your study.

• Reliability: Does the measure produce consistent results?

  • Issue of Interpretation: If a question like "What is your favorite season?" leads half the people to answer weather seasons and active people to answer sports seasons (e.g., "March Madness"), the question lacks reliability because it is interpreted differently.

Causation vs. Correlation

• Causation: The absolute root cause of an event. This is rarely claimed in social sciences because issues like poverty are complex webs of environment, family history, and decision-making.

• Correlation: A relationship where two things happen at the same time or show a similar trend.

• The "Correlation Cat" Metaphor: Used to illustrate how things can be heavily correlated without one being the cause of the other. For instance, drug addiction and cognitive weakness may correlate, but one does not necessarily cause the other.

Sampling Strategies

• Non-Probability Sampling:

  • No randomization; not generalizable.

  • Convenience Sampling: Pulling samples from easily accessible groups, such as university students.

• Probability Sampling:

  • Randomized and generalizable.

  • Ideal for research but expensive and often difficult to achieve.

  • Response Rates: Average survey response rates are typically between $20\%$ and $30\%$.

Ethical Considerations and Power Dynamics

• Power Dynamics: Researchers must be sensitive to the power imbalance between themselves and the communities they study.

• "Nothing About Us Without Us": A principle emphasizing that disenfranchised communities should be included in the research process, not just used for information extraction.

• Tuskegee Syphilis Study Context: Referenced as a historical warning of unethical research where treatments were withheld from participants.

• Staged-Approach Study Design: To ensure ethical treatment, researchers can use a cross-over design where the control group receives the intervention after the initial testing period concludes. This ensures everyone eventually benefits from a potentially effective treatment.

Needs Assessment

• Definition: A systematic approach to identifying social problems, determining their extent, and defining the target population and service needs.

• Purpose: To secure funding, promote program shifts, or prepare for evaluation.

• Steps to Conduct a Needs Assessment:

  1. Determine purpose and target population.

  2. Describe the target population and service environment (e.g., services currently available to the unhoused).

  3. Determine the scope of the problem (number of people, community perception).

  4. Describe the nature of the need.

  5. Report findings and make decisions.

• Language Note: The term "unhoused" is often used instead of "homeless" for legal reasons. For example, an LGBTQ youth kicked out of their house technically has a home legally but does not have access to it, making them "unhoused."

The Grant Cycle

• Identifying Opportunities: Searching for available grants and assistance.

• Capacity Analysis: Determining if the organization has the ability to execute the grant requirements.

• Preparation: Drafting the grant proposal.

• Negotiation: Ensuring the terms of the grant are appropriate for the proposed work.

Questions & Discussion

• Question: Do we know what qualitative and quantitative are?

• Response: Some students are familiar; qualitative involves interviewing and identifying themes, while quantitative involves numbers and stats.

• Question: Does anyone know Sherlock Holmes?

• Response: The lecturer uses Holmes as an example of inductive reasoning (despite Holmes calling it deduction), where small details are used to draw a conclusion.

• Inquiry: Are there any questions on research designs or needs assessments?

• Response: No questions were raised by the students; the lecturer encouraged them to come to class on Wednesday with their top idea for their project.