Comprehensive Study Notes: History of Zimbabwe Advanced Level

Sources of History Used in Recovering Zimbabwe’s Pre-Colonial History

The Three Major Sources: The reconstruction of pre-colonial Zimbabwean history primarily relies on oral tradition, written records, and archaeology. Additional auxiliary sources include linguistics, anthropology, botany, rock paintings, and ethnography.
Oral Tradition: * Definition: Information passed from generation to generation by word of mouth. It is the oldest and most popular method for recording African history, often called "unwritten history." * Forms: Includes praise poems, songs of heroic deeds, and verbal testimonies regarding king lists, successions, migrations ( $exodus$ ), and wars. * Reliability: Considered the "backbone" and "starting point" of all other sources; however, it can be subject to distortion, forgetfulness, or exaggeration. * Function: J. Vansina postulated that oral tradition provides "clothing, colour and flesh on the bones of the past," explaining archaeology's findings and providing a mental framework for historical events.
Usefulness of Oral Tradition in Zimbabwe: * Great Zimbabwe State: Shona traditions confirm their ancestors built the stone walls at Great Zimbabwe, correcting Eurocentric 19th and 20th-century myths that attributed the site to Arabs or Phoenicians. * Mutapa State: Provides information on origins (founded by $Nyatsimba Mutota$ after migrating from Great Zimbabwe to the Dande region) and lists rulers such as $Mutota$ and $Nyanhewe Matope$ . * Rozvi State: Preserves the names of rulers like $Changamire Dombo$ and explains the role of the $Changamire$ title inside society. * Indigenous Perspective: Counters 19th-century European claims (e.g., the myth that Ndebele-Shona relations were exclusively hostile or that the Shona were helpless victims of raiding). Traditions assert relations were often based on trade, cultural exchange, and coexistence.
Limitations of Oral Tradition: * Memory Lapses: The fallibility of human memory leads to omissions or the creation of new stories to fill gaps. J. Vansina and D.N. Beach highlight the danger of "misremembering" stories told in infancy as firsthand experiences. * Manipulation: Records are often adjusted to reflect modern concerns or political needs (as noted by Twaddle, $1974$ ). * Chronological Issues: Lack of precise calendars leads to dating based on major catastrophic events (e.g., locust plagues, droughts, floods) rather than specific years. Spear argues oral tradition rarely lasts more than $500$ years; in Zimbabwe, it rarely exceeds $400$ years. * Anonymity: Fails to provide specific names for early periods; for instance, Great Zimbabwe rulers are often simply called "mambo" (dynastic title).
Archaeology: * Definition: The scientific study of material remains such as tools, pottery, religious artifacts, and bones. * Stone Age Reconstruction: Helps reconstruct the pre-colonial past characterized by hunting with stone/wooden tools. * Iron Age Transition: Excavations at sites like $Gokomere$ , $Ziwa$ , and $Mabveni$ reveal iron tools ( $axes$ , $spears$ , $hoes$ ) suggesting the advent of agriculture and mining. Discoveries of sea shells at $Kadzi$ suggest trade links with the Indian Ocean in the first millennium $AD$ . * Great Zimbabwe Findings: Discoveries in $1903$ (Persian bowls, Chinese stone wares, Near Eastern glasses, glass beads) prove participation in long-distance external trade. * Weaknesses: Cannot provide names of people or languages (Phillipson, $1985$ ); neglects political hierarchies and gender structures.
Written Records: * Early Accounts: Arab traders and Portuguese recorders (e.g., $Joao de Barros$ ) provided second-hand accounts of the interior Plateau. Important sailing manuals like that of $Ibn Madjid$ ( $1475-1489$ ) exist. * Mutapa Detail: Portuguese accounts provide vivid descriptions of royal capitals ( $Dzimbadzamabwe$ ), gold trade, and specific rulers like $Mavura Mhande$ and $Gatsi Rusere$ . * 19th-Century European Sources: Missionaries ( $Charles Helm$ , $Robert Moffat$ , $J.S. Moffat$ ), hunters, and traders recorded accurate dates for mission stations ( $Inyati$ in $1859$ , $Hope Fountain$ in $1870$ ) and political treaties like the $Moffat Treaty$ and $Rudd Concession$ ( $1888$ ). * Weaknesses: Often repetitive, confusing, biased, and Eurocentric.

The San and Khoikhoi Societies

The San Hunter-Gatherers: * Technology: Stone Age people using stone, wood, and bone tools. * Economics: * Hunting: Collaborative; used pit traps near rivers and poisoned arrows (neurotoxic poison from roots/snakes). * Gathering: Women provided $80\%$ of food (fruits, bulbs, honey, locusts). * Fishing: Used basket traps and sharpened bone hooks. * Preservation: Meat was smoked or dried. * Social & Political: Egalitarian, classless society practicing "consensual democracy." Nomadic groups of $5$ to $35$ people. Practiced natural family planning (D.N. Beach). * Culture: Created rock paintings using multi-colored paint; possessed a unique click language.
The Khoikhoi (Khoi Herders): * Definition: Name means "men of men"; Europeans called them "Hottentots." * Economics: * Pastoralism: Main activity; kept long-horned cattle (symbol of wealth) and fat-tailed sheep. * Agriculture: Cultivation of $Pennisetum$ began around the 3rd century $AD$ . * Trade: Salt extraction through evaporation in soapstone dishes. * Technology: More advanced than San; practiced smelting and smithing of iron/copper. * Social & Political: Lived in larger groups (~ $200$ people). Hereditary chieftainship (father to son). Paid lobola (bride price) with an ox.

The Transition from Stone Age to Iron Age

Revolutionary Changes: The transition is often described as a "revolution" due to innovations in production.
Economic Improvements: * Crops: Organized cultivation of millet, sorghum, and pumpkins using iron hoes/axes. Ashes used as fertilizers for $3-4$ years. * Domestication: Kept cattle, goats, and sheep. Cattle became the status symbol and backbone of the economy. * Mining: Shaft, alluvial, and open-cast mining for iron, copper, and gold. Shafts reached depths over $100\,feet$ .
Social/Political Impact: * Permanence: Transition from caves to permanent huts (pole and dagga with grass thatch). * Social Stratification: Emergence of classes based on cattle ownership; use of poor dependents ( $varanda$ ) for labor. * Polygamy: Introduced to provide agricultural labor; led to the first appearance of bride price. * Warfare: Manufacture of iron weapons (spears/arrows) led to more frequent conflicts.
Origins Debate: * Migrationist Theory: (D.N. Beach, Mudenge, Huffman) Argues that Bantu-speaking immigrants from North/East Africa brought iron technology during a massive movement caused by population pressure and drought. * Diffusionist Theory: (P. Garlake) Argues the transition was a local development/innovation within existing Stone Age communities, emphasizing social shifts over racial migration.

The Rise and Fall of Early States

Early States (1050-1450): Preceded Great Zimbabwe, including Toutswe, Leopard’s Kopje, and Mapungubwe.
Mapungubwe State: * Location: Mid-Limpopo Valley. * Features: Rich in gold ornaments and cotton (evidence of long-distance trade). Settlement on hills suggests a need to protect cattle from raids. * Decline: Overgrazing and drought in the 13th century led to a northward movement toward Great Zimbabwe.
Great Zimbabwe State (1200-1500): * Origin Controversy: Eurocentrists ( $Richard Hall$ , $Cecil Rhodes$ ) claimed foreign builders. Afrocentrists ( $Garlake$ , $Summers$ , $Thompson$ ) proved Shona (Karanga) origin through artifacts and carbon dating ( $1100-1440\,AD$ ). * Purpose of Walls: Symbols of status/prestige, religious shrines (conical tower as an altar for $Mwari$ ), and markers of royal privacy. * Rise Components: Cattle accumulation ( $Garlake$ 's transhumance theory), long-distance trade (gold/ivory), military prowess of the $Gumanye$ culture, and religious importance ( $Hungwe$ soapstone birds). * Political Structure: Supreme King at the top; Council of Elders ( $Dare$ ). Kingdom supported through tribute (grain, gold, skins). * Economics: Mixed economy (pastoralism, agriculture, mining, trade, fishing, pottery). * Decline Factors: * External: Loss of trade control to the north (Zambezi valley). * Internal: Environmental stress (overpopulation), succession disputes ( $Nyatsimba Mutota$ 's departure), and severe salt shortages.

The Mutapa State

Founding: Founded around $1400\,AD$ by $Nyatsimba Mutota$ seeking salt/gold. He subdued the $Tavara$ and $Tonga$ , earning the title $Mwenemutapa$ ("Master Pillager").
Succession: His son $Nyanhewe Matope$ expanded the empire from the Indian Ocean to the Kalahari.
Military: A standing force of $200$ to $500$ soldiers; a broader council of war ( $Dare reHondo$ ). Used magic/magical charms before battle.
The Portuguese Presence: * Entry: Arrived at Sofala in $1506$ ; moved inland to control the gold/ivory trade. * Martyrdom: Murder of $Goncalo da Silveira$ in $1561$ (at the instigation of Swahili-Arabs) led to punitive expeditions under $Francisco Barreto$ ( $1569$ ). * Puppet Mutapas: Portuguese supported $Mavura Mhande$ ( $1629$ ) against $Nyambo Kapararidze$ . The $Treaty of 1629$ made Mutapa a vassal of Portugal. * The Prazo System: Large crown land estates ( $Prazos da Coroa$ ) owned by Europeans. Developed into a feudal system using African labor ( $colono$ ) and private armies ( $achikunda$ ). * Positive Impacts: New crops (maize, potatoes, fruits), improved mining, and modern civilization (clothing). * Negative Impacts: Tribal identity lost, political interference, spread of diseases, and the birth of a mixed population ( $mulattos$ ).

The Rozvi State

Roots: Founded by $Changamire Dombo$ in the late 17th century ( $1684-1695$ ). Some theories argue it was an offshoot of Mutapa or a continuation of the Torwa state.
Political Hierarchy: The $Mambo$ (King) from the $Moyondizvo$ totem. Supported by the $Tumbare$ (military commander and regent).
Military Strength: A standing army of $3000$ men including a royal bodyguard ( $Ngwanangwana$ ). Known for defeating the Portuguese at the Battle of $Zumbo$ .
Economic Basis: Large cattle herds and control over gold mines (state monopoly).
Decline (19th C): * Internal: Over-expansion, civil wars after ruler $Rupandamanhanga$ , and severe droughts. * External (Nguni Mfecane): Successive invasions by $Zwangendaba$ , $Soshangane$ , $Nxaba$ , and the female warrior $Nyamazana$ (who killed $Chirisamhuru II$ ). Final defeat came from $Mzilikazi$ 's Ndebele in $1840$ .

The Ndebele State

Structure: Highly centralized state led by the $Inkosi$ . Divided into councils ( $Umphakathi$ and $Izikulu$ ).
Caste System: 1. Zansi: Original Khumalo from Nguniland ( $15\%$ ). 2. Enhla: Sotho/Tswana groups assimilated during migration ( $25\%$ ). 3. Hole: Conquered Shona/Kalanga ( $60\%$ ).
Religious Stability: Practiced $Inxwala$ (first fruit ceremony). Adopted Shona $Mhondoro$ rain-making ceremonies for unity.
Modern Historical Revision: Contrary to Eurocentric myths, the Ndebele were not solely dependent on raiding. They practiced extensive crop cultivation, mining, and trade with the Portuguese and British.
Ndebele-Shona Relations: Relations were often cordial and based on trade (e.g., Ndebele loaned cattle to Shona, Shona provided iron tools/medicine). Hostility was exaggerated by Europeans to justify colonization.

Missionary Activities & Colonization

Missionary Goals: Christianity, commerce, and "civilization." Used technical skills (repairing guns/wagons) to obtain royal favor.
Failures: Missionaries like $J.S. Moffat$ and $Charles Helm$ made zero Ndebele converts for $30$ years. This frustration led them to advocate for the military destruction of the Ndebele state.
The Second Rand Myth: Reports by $Henry Hartley$ and $Carl Mauch$ ( $1868$ ) about gold in Zimbabwe stimulated British colonization.
Treaties of Deception: * Grobbler Treaty (1887): Between Lobengula and Boer Transvaal. * Moffat Treaty (1888): Canceled Boer influence; placed Zimbabwe under British sphere of influence. * Rudd Concession (Oct 1888): Lobengula granted mining rights for $100\,pounds/month$ , $1000\,rifles$ , and $100000\,rounds$ of ammunition. Bribes were paid to $Lotshe$ and $C. Helm$ to trick the king.
Pioneer Column (1890): $200$ volunteers and $500$ police guided by $F.C. Selous$ . Established settlements at $Fort Victoria$ , $Fort Charter$ , and $Salisbury$ .

Internal Conflicts and Uprisings

Anglo-Ndebele War (1893-4): Caused by the failure to find gold in Mashonaland and the "Victoria Incidents." The Ndebele were defeated by superior weapons (Maxim guns) at the battles of $Shangani$ and $Mbembesi$ . $Allan Wilson$ 's patrol was wiped out at the $Shangani$ River.
First Chimurenga / Umvukela (1896-7): * Hate Factors: Loss of land, cattle confiscation ( $80\%$ of Ndebele cattle taken), forced labor ( $chibharo$ ), and the rinderpest disease. * Nature of the War: Spontaneous uprisings in Matabeleland ( $March 1896$ ) and Mashonaland ( $June 1896$ ). * Spiritual Leadership: $Kaguvi$ and $Nehanda$ (executed $April 1897$ ). $Nehanda$ 's last words predicted that her "bones shall rise again." * Resolution: Rhodes negotiated peace at the Matopos Indaba ( $October 1896$ ) with Ndebele chiefs; Shona were defeated individually through the bombing of caves.

Colonial Policy & Federation

Land Acts: * Land Apportionment Act (1930): Segregated $51\%$ of prime land for $50000$ whites while leaving marginal land for $1000000$ Africans. * Land Husbandry Act (1951): Enforced de-stocking and contour ridges, deeply unpopular among peasants.
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1953-1963): * Economic Achievement: Construction of the $Kariba Dam$ ( $1959$ ), established the $University of Rhodesia and Nyasaland$ ( $1957$ ). * Social Reality: Referred to by Prime Minister $Huggins$ as a "partnership between a horse [Africans] and a rider [Europeans]." * Collapse: Driven by unequal development (Bambazonke - Southern Rhodesia taking all wealth) and the rise of northern nationalism under $Kamuzu Banda$ and $Kenneth Kaunda$ .