Christian Scriptures Exam IV

  1. Order of Empires: Assyria – Babylon - Persia – Greek – Roman Empire

  • Assyrian Empire (900-612 cent BCE): Conquered Israel leading to the dispersion of the ten northern tribes (the Ten Lost Tribes)

  • Babylonian Empire (612-539 cent BCE): Conquered Judah, destroyed the First Temple, and exiled the Jews to Babylon

  • Persian Empire (538-333 BCE): Allowed Jews to return to their land and rebuild the Second Temple under King Cyrus

  • Greek Empire (332-63 BCE): After Alexander the Great’s conquest, Greek culture (Hellenism) spread affecting Jewish life

  • Roman Empire (63 BCE onwards): Took control of Judea, leading to the eventual destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE

  1. What happened during the intertestamental period?

  1. Intertestamental Period (400 BCE - 0)

  • It spans from the Old Testament writings to the beginning of the New Testament events

  • It marks the gap between the Old and New Testaments and during this time, several significant events occurred:

  1.  Jewish Return from Exile: Jews returned from babylonian exile and rebuilt the Second Temple in Jerusalem

  2. Hellenization: The Greek Empire spread its culture and philosophy, which greatly influenced Jewish society

  3. Roman Conquest: The Romans came to power in the region, eventually establishing control over Judea

  4. Jewish Sectarianism: Various Jewish sects (Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, etc) emerged, each interpreting Jewish law differently.

  5. Maccabean Revolt: A Jewish revolt against Greek oppression led to the Hasmonean dynasty, an independent Jewish kingdom before Roman intervention.

  1. Reaction to Hellenism: Adoption (gymnasium, dress code, language) vs. resistance (canonization and Maccabean Revolt)

  1. Adoption of Hellenism:

  • Gymnasium: Jewish men sometimes participated in Greek athletic contest in the nude, which was a controversial adoption of Greek customs

  • Dress Code: Many Jews adopted Greek clothing and other cultural practices to fit in with the dominant Hellenistic culture

  • Language: Greek became the common language (Koine Greek), especially among the educated classes.

  1. Resistance to Hellenism:

  • Canonization of Scripture: The resistance to Hellenism was seen in the efforts to preserve the Jewish religious identity through the canonization of scriptures, ensuring the preservation of the Torah (Jewsih law) 

  • Maccabean Revolt: The Jewish revolt led by the Hasmoneans against Antiochus IV’s attempt to force Hellenism upon the Jews is a key event in this resistance.

  1. Maccabean Revolt (167 BCE): Antiochus IV (175 BCE), Mattathias, Rededication/purification of the temple - the festival of Hannaukah, Hasmonean Dynasty (142-63)

  1. Maccabean Revolt (167 BCE)

  • Antiochus IV (175 BCE): The Selecuid ruler who imposed harsh measures on Jews, forced pagan sacrifices (e.g Zeus worship, swine sacrifice), including outlawing Jewish religious practices and desecrating the Jewish Temple entering the holy of holies

  • Mattathias: A Jewish priest who led the rebellion after Antiochus IV attempted to force Jews to abandon their faith. Mattathias’s sons, including Judas Maccabeus, continued the fight. Priest Mattahias killed a Jew who chose to offer pagan sacrifice and a Seleuicid officer (167). Mattathias and his 5 sons fled to the hills and engaged in guerrilla warfare for 25 years.

  • Re-dedication of the Temple (164 BCE): After the revolt, the Jewish Temple was purified and rededicated. This event is commemorated by the Festival of Hanukkah which celebrates the miracle of the oil lasting 8 days.

  • Hasmonean Dynasty (142-63 BCE): The Maccabeans established the Hasmonean Dynasty, which ruled Judea with semi-independence from the Seleucid Empire until Roman intervention in 63 BCE.

  1. Diversification of the Second Temple Judaism (Jewish sects)

  1. During this period, several Jewish sects arose each with distinct beliefs and practices:

  • The Diaspora: Many Jews lived outside Judea, particularly in cities like Alexandria, forming communities known as the Diaspora. These Jews often adopted some Hellenistic customs

  1. Sadducees: Priesthood and temple-focused; they believed in strict adherence to the Torah and rejected oral traditions. Upper class with political power, they supported the social and political status quo. Do not believe in an afterlife and the resurrection.

  2. Pharisees: Criticized by Jesus many times. Focused on the interpretation of the law and the oral traditions; they believed in resurrection and afterlife. Skillful interpreters and faithful practitioners of the law. The temple authorities are corrupted as well as gathered around synagogues and emphasized ritual purity. Morphed into rabbinic Judaism 70 CE

  3. Essenes: A separatist group that lived in isolated communities like Qumran and focused on purity, awaiting the coming of the messiah. They criticized the temple and other religious sects. They had pure worship and true righteousness. They are the temples. They denied human passions and pleasures, lived a communal life and shared possession with strict rules and punishments.

  4. Zealots (Revolutionaries): Revolutionaries who sought to overthrow Roman rule through violence

  5. Samaritans: A group that considered themselves Israelites but were rejected by other Jews due to differences in worship practices and beliefs 

  1. Apocrypha & Septuagint

  • Acrophypha: Books written during the Intertestamental Period that were included in the Septuagint but were not accepted in the Hebrew Bible (e.g 1 & 2 Maccabees, Tobit)

  • Septuagint (LXX): A Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, made by Jewish scholars in Alexandria, which became influential in Hellenistic Jewish communities

  1. Canonization of the Old Testament

  • Torah (400 BCE): The first part of the Hebrew Bible, the Torah (Pentateuch), was canonized shortly after the return from exile under Ezra

  • Prophets (200 BCE): The second part of the Hebrew Bible, the Prophets was recognized as canon by around 200 BCE

  • Writings (100 CE): The final section, the Writings, was canonized by around 100 CE


  1. Division of the New Testament

  • Four Gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke, John

  • History: Acts of the Apostles

  • Pauline Letters (13), General Letters (8)

  • Apocalypse: Revelation (prophecy)

  1. Four Gospels Chronology

  • Mark: Written 65-70 CE, earliest Gospel likely in Rome. Mark was Peter’s interpreter/secretary and emphasized action and Jesus’ suffering

  • Matthew: Written 70-80s CE, likely in Antioch primarily for a Jewsih audience. Focused on Jesus as the fulfillment of the Old Testament.

  • Luke: Written 70-80s CE, addressed to Theophilus and a general audience. Luke also wrote Acts and highlights the marginalized.

  • John: Written 80-90s CE, latest Gospel with a highly theological emphasis on the divinity of Jesus

  1. Synoptic Gospels

  • The Synoptic Gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke (Synoptic = “see together”) 

  • Share common stories, themes, and wordings often seen as interdependent

  1. Synoptic Problem

  • The Literary Relationship: How are the Synoptic Gospels related?

  • Matthean Priority: Matthew was thought to be written first (early tradition)

  • Markan Priority: Scholars today agree Mark was the first Gospel written:

  1. Matthew and Luke expanded on Mark’s material

  2. Why did Mark omit significant portions of Matthew

  • Q Source (Quelle): Explains 200+ non-Markan verses found in both Matthew and Luke. Four-Source Hypothesis suggests:

  1. Mark was used by Matthew and Luke

  2. Q (sayings of Jesus) was shared by Matthew and Luke

  3. M: Unique material in Matthew

  4. L: Unique material in Luke

  1. Relationship Between Matthew and Luke

  1. Both Gospels share:

  • Teachings of Jesus (Sermon on the Mount/Sermon on the Plain)

  • Parables and ethical instructions

Q: Hypothetical written collection of Jesus’ sayings used alongside Mark

  1. Characteristics of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John

  2. Mark

  • Structure:

  1. Prologue (1:1-15): Baptism and wilderness temptation

  • This was the beginning of the good news of Jesus Christ, the Son of God

  • Jesus was baptized by John the baptist. A voice from heaven

  • Jesus was tempted by Satan in the wilderness

  • Proclaims the good news of the coming of God’s Kingdom

  1. Galilean Ministry (1:16-8:26): Miracles, parables, and controversies

  • Jesus called the 12 disciples (the twelve tribes of Israel)

  • Miracles: exorcism, healing, raising the dead, calmed down the storm, walked on water, and multiplied food

  • Teaching the kingdom of God (short parables)

  • Opposition: controversial figure He ate with sinners, violates the sabbath, and forgives sins

  1. Journey to Jerusalem (8:27-10:52): Peter’s confession; Jesus predicts His suffering

  • Turning point: Peter’s confession “You are the messiah”, Jesus is not the triumphant powerful ruler they expected, he reveals himself to be a suffering Messiah

  • Jesus teaches about suffering, humility, and sacrifice

  • Jesus predicts his suffering and death 3 times

  1. Passion Week (11-16): Triumphal entry, Last Supper, crucifixion, and resurrection (16:8 abrupt ending)

  • Jesus shows his authority in Jerusalem by his teaching

  • the religious leaders try to kill Jesus and stirred the people

  • The Last Supper: Communion + Judas Iscariot betrayed him

  • Jesus was arrested and crucified, his disciples scattered 

  • Jesus resurrection, the empty tomb Roman soldier says “truly this mans was the Son of God”

  • Key Features:

  1. Earliest and shortest Gospel

  2. Focused on Jesus’ deeds over words; fast-paced

  3. No account of Jesus’ childhood

  4. Presents Jesus as the suffering Messiah

  1. Matthew

  1. Gospel of Matthew

  • matthew is one of Jesus’s actual 12 disciples, Apostles

  • The most important Gospel/writing for early Church

  • Matthew is the most Jewish oriented gospel among the 4

  • The gospel is for all people of the world

  • Most Old Testament citation

  1. links the Old and New

  2. Jesus fulfills the Old Testament

  3. The Sermon on the Mount -> Jesus as a new Moses who gives a new Torah

  4. Jesus does not reject but complete laws. Deeper interpretations

  5. Jewish expression: “kingdom of heaven” righteousness for a Jewish congregation

  6. Same geographical movement of Mark

  • Structure:

  1. Genealogy and Birth (chs. 1-2): Traces Jesus from Abraham through David

  • The birth of Jesus from a virgin Mary & Magi’s (3 wise men) visit

  • includes the Gentiles by 3 non-Israelite women in the genealogy

  • Herod tried to kill the baby Jesus

  1. Ministry in Galilee: Sermon on the Mount, miracles

  • Specifies the 3 temptations of Jesus in the wilderness

  • Extensive teaching: the Sermon on the Mount (new Moses) & Kingdom parables

  • Jesus’s extensive beautiful teaching of a new way of life for God’s kingdom

  • Beatitude (series of blessings about the actions and hearts of people living in the kingdom of heaven)

  • Christian identity: the salt and light of the world

  • Not to abolish the law but to fulfill it

  • the Lord’s prayer

  • the crowds were astounded at his teaching

  • Jesus builds up his church on Peter (Roman Catholic)

  • or Peter’s confession of faith (Protestant)

  1. Journey to Jerusalem

  2. Passion and Resurrection.

  • Soldiers who kept Jesus's tomb to lie of Jesus’s resurrection

  • The Great Commision: jesus’ final instructions to His disciples after His resurrection to go make disciples of all nations (spread the gospel to all people)

  • Key Features:
    Written for Jewish Christians

  • Emphasizes Jesus as the fulfillment of the Old Testament

  • Genealogy focuses on Abraham and David

  • Jesus as the new Moses: Sermon on the Mount and fulfillment of the Law

  • Unique: Magi visit baby Jesus, Great Commision (28:19-20)

  1. Luke

  • Structure:

  1. Infancy Narratives (chs 1-2): Births of John the Baptist and Jesus

  • The birth of John and Jesus from a virgin Mary conceived by the Holy Spirit

    • Luke: an angel appeared to Mary vs Matthew: to Joseph

  • The angel came to Mary and shepherds (vs. magi in Matthew)

  • Emphasizes the humble circumstances of Jesus’ birth

  • The genealogy goes back to Adam (and to God)

  1. Galilean Ministry

  • follows geographical movement of Mark

  • ministries in Galilee -> a journey to Jerusalem -> in Jerusalem

  1. Journey to Jerusalem

  2. Passion, Crucifixion, and Resurrection

  • Key Features:

  1. Written for Gentile Christians and addressed to Theophilus to know the truth about Jesus

  2. Emphasizes inclusion: women, the poor, and sinners

  • not only 12, but also some female disciples

  1. genealogy traces back to Adam (universality)

  2. Unique stories: Good Samaritan, Prodigal Son, Thief on the Cross

  3. Humility at Jesus’ birth: shepherds instead of magi

  4. Focuses on compassion and radical teachings of Jesus

  • a good Samaritan, prodigal son, the salvation of the criminal next to Jesus on the cross

  • Stay in Jerusalem after Jesus’s ascension, Gospel spread out from Jerusalem

  1. John

  1. The Fourth Gospel

  • Offers different portrait of Jesus

  1. no exorcism

  2. long theological discourses

  3. different chronology

  4. aware of synoptic accounts

  • Structure:

  1. Prologue (1:1-18): Jesus as the Logos

  • focuses on the divinity of Jesus Christ -> Incarnation

  • highly theological introduction to Jesus

  • Greek term logos (word) connotes logic of the universe

  • longer discourse -> short teaching of parables

  1. Book of Signs (1:19-12:50): Seven signs/miracles revealing Jesus’ identity

  • only few miracles, focus on Jesus’s identity and meaning of his miracles

  • Seven I am statements (e.g the bread of life, the light of the world, the gate, the shepherd, the way the truth and the life, the true vine, the resurrection and the life

  1. Book of Glory (13-20): Passion, death, resurrection

  • Jesus washed his disciples’ feet during the last supper

  • depicts Jesus’s crucifixion as a glorification

  • introduces the coming of the Holy Spirit as the Advocate

  • New commandment: “Love one another as I have loved you”

  • Betrayal, pain, cross = glorification

  1. Epilogue (Ch.21): Appearance to disciples

  • Key Features:

  1. Theological Gospel emphasizes Jesus’ divinity (Incarnation)

  2. Seven “I Am” statements (e.g, “I am the bread of life”)

  3. Longer discourses and absence of exorcisms

  4. Depicts Jesus’ crucifixion as glorification

  5. Holy Spirit introduced as the Advocate

  1. Importance of Women

  1. Women play crucial roles as followers and witnesses:

  • Mary Magdalene, Mary (mother of Jesus) and Salome at the crucifixion and resurrection

  • Women first witnessed the empty womb

  1. What happened on the day of Pentecost?

  • The Holy Spirit descends on the apostles (Acts 2) enabling them to preach to people of various languages

  • Birth of the early Church

  1. The First Church in Jerusalem

  1. Characteristics:

  • Communal living and sharing possessions

  • Emphasis on prayer, breaking bread, and apostles’ teachings, miracles and healings

  • Problem and how to solve the Problem - deacons focus on the words and prayer

  1. Who is Paul (Saul)?

  • Roman citizen, Hellenized education, eloquent in Greek

  • Devoted Pharisee, persecuted the church and believers Christians

  • Converted by a mystical experience of Christ on the way to Damascus: He became blind opened his eyes and preached Jesus is the Messiah

  • Travelling missionary & church planter

  • Known as the Apostle to the Gentiles

  • Wrote 13 letters in the New Testament

  1. Paul’s Life Timeline

  • Jesus’s crucifixion, Pentecost

  • Conversion while traveling to Damascus: 32-35 CE

  • Paul joins to Antioch (Barnabas’s invitation) 

  • Missionary Journeys

  1. 1st (44-46 CE): Cyprus and Asia Minor

  2. Jerusalem Council (46-49 CE): Debate on Gentile Christians on Gentile conversion

  3. 2nd and 3rd (50-58 CE): Macedonia, Corinth, Ephesus

  • Journey to Rome: 60-63 CE

  • Paul’s Letter were written

  • Death under Nero (Death of Paul and Peter): 64 CE

  1. Jerusalem Council

  • Topic: Should Gentiles follow Jewish laws (circumcision)?

  • Conclusion: No; Gentiles are saved through grace, not the Mosaic Law

  1. Authorship - amanuensis & pseudonymity

  1. Why Disputed:

  • Different writing style and language

  • Different theological view

  • Reflect later developments in Christian theology/polity

  1. Paul did not write the letters but dictated them to his amanuensis

  • to write what someone dictates like a secretary

  • a reliable amanuensis had more freedom and flexibility - providing drafts, editing, collecting, and composing parts of or entire letters fr his/her employer

  1. Ancient practice of pseudonymity or writing under false name 

  • ex) Pythagoras’s disciples wrote books in their teacher’s name in order to honor him

  • Paul’s theology can change over time


  1. Characteristics of Pauline letters and Paul’s theology

  • Main character of Acts 13-28 (more than half!)

  • Extraordinary figure account for 13 out of the 27 books of the NT

  • write letters to local churches or individual leaders about the problems & issues that they faced

  • Not as a systematic presentation of theology but as pastoral dispatches intended to address specific issues

  • Romans is Paull’s masterpiece of theological presentation of the Gospel, the unity between Jews and gentiles and Christian life

  • Later collected by churches for studying and teaching purposes

  • Paul’s authorship of 6 letters are disputed among scholars

  1. Galatians

  • Tone: Polemical (addresses Judaizers)

  • Alongside Romans, Galatians became a foundational text for the Reformation of Martin Luther

  • Main Themes:

  1. Major 2 issues: theological “what we believe”

  • Defense of his apostleship

  • Defense of his gospel

  1. Freedom in Christ ethical “how to live” -> short but powerful letter about Christian liberty! Christians Declaration of Independence

  2. Justification by faith, not works

  3. Christian liberty: Live by the Spirit, not the flesh

  4. Unity among believers

  • Structure:

  1. Chs 1-4: Defense of Paul’s apostleship and Gospel

  • Greeting (sender and receiver), defending the apostleship

  • Paul Apostle not by human authority but by Jesus Christ & God

  • to the churches of Galatia

  • Grace and Peace: a common greeting formula

  • Paul rebukes the Galatians -> emotional and polemical

  • Paul’s gospel is not of human origin, but a divine revelation

  • Divine commision

  • Jerusalem council

  • Paul rebukes even Cephas (Peter)

  1. Chs 5-6: Ethical instructions (freedom in Christ)

  • Why “General Letters” - Not Pauline Letters and they were sent to general audience, not to specific congregations/churches

  • Catholic Epistles - the collection of the seven letters except Hebrews gained the title “catholic Epistles” in the late 3rd cent

  1. Hebrews (regarded as Paul’s letter in the ancient days, but now anonymous)

  • Hebrews was included into the Canon since it was regarded as Paul’s letter, no longer regarded as Paul’s letter

  1. James

  2. 1-2 Peter

  3. 1-3 John

  4. Jude (brother of James)

  1. Gen

  2. James

  1. Receivers: the 12 tribes in the Dispersion -> Christians in general

  2. A letter for general audience

  3. Moral instructions like a sermon

  4. Themes: emphasis on doing work, controlling one’s speech, enduring the trials, humbleness, patience, warning against the rich, prayer, etc

  1. Emphasizes faith in action: “Faith without works is dead” (james 2:17)

  2. Similar ethical teachings to the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5-7)

  3. The authorship of James (jesus’s brother) is not without a debate

  • sophisticated and polished Greek style

  • its use of the Septuagint instead of Hebrew texts

  • the late acceptance of its cannibal status

  • Jewish characteristics “12 tribes”

  • These can be explained by amanuensis or pseudonymity

  1. James and Galatians

  • Paul emphasizes faith in Christ against the works of the law of Moses

  • James emphasizes good works that reflect someone’s faith

  • “Faith’ begins with the transformation of heart and mind, but it should eventually be proved by the transformation of life “work”

  • James is more about Christian maturity

  • When you reason one book in the Bible, understand it in the big picture

  • Promote a balanced view of faith and work


  1. Revelation

  1. Authorship: John

  • John the Apostle

  • John the elder

  • John a Christian prophet

  • Written during persecution (likely under Domitian)

  • Apocalyptic Genre: Symbolic visions revealing God’s ultimate victory

  • Encourages faithfulness amidst suffering

  • Key symbols:

  1. 7 churches, 7 seals, 666 (Nero Caesar)

  2. Babylon represents Rome; New Jerusalem symbolizes redemption

  1. NT Canonization

  • Pauline Letters: Early 2nd cent

  • Gospels and Acts: Late 2nd cent

  • Full list: Athanasius’s letter (367 CE)


Key Dates

  • 332 BCE: Alexander the Great

  • 167 BCE: Maccabean Revolt

  • 30 CE: Jesus’ crucifixion

  • 70 CE: Destruction of the Temple

  • 64 CE: Death of Paul and Peter

  • 267 CE: First complete NT canon list (Athanasius)