Age of Discovery: Phase I & II Notes (The New World and African Diaspora)

The New World and the African Diaspora

Definition of diaspora in this context: Africans forcibly taken away from their homeland and transplanted elsewhere, mainly not voluntarily.
- They are living away from their homeland; many never return.
- Diaspora does not necessarily mean everyone returns; sometimes people do, sometimes they don’t.
This content centers on Africa, the slave trade, and the African diaspora into the New World.
As the lecturer notes, when you consider other events in world history and descendants, the pattern often involves long-lasting diasporas and loss of homeland.
Early framing: Portugal is identified as the first European country to initiate the age of exploration and the slave trade, with other Europeans following in their wake.
A stark statement about slavery: historically, Africans were dehumanized to justify enslavement; European slavery is framed as racial slavery.
A map reference: a map dated 1880 shows the routes from Africa into Asia via the Cape of Good Hope; this underscores later stages of imperialism beyond the initial age of discovery.
By the late 19th century, virtually all of Africa had been carved into colonies by Europeans, illustrating the shift from early exploration to full-blown imperialism. The broad question raised: which period in world history leads to Africa being completely divided by Europeans? The answer points to the European imperialism and the Scramble for Africa.
The discussion will later connect to the two-phase structure of the Age of Discovery, with Phase I (Iberian phase) and Phase II (Northern European phase).

Phase I: The Iberian Phase of the Age of Discovery (roughly up to 1600)

The two major players in Phase I are Portugal (early explorer) and Spain (afterwards joining the conquest and colonization wave).
The phase begins with Portugal’s early explorations and Reconquista context; Spain enters after.
Key explorers and events to know from this phase include Columbus, the Spanish crown’s support, and papal involvement in dividing the non-European world.

Columbus and the First Contact with the New World

Christopher Columbus is a central figure in starting sustained European contact with the Americas, though not the first Europeans to reach parts of North America (Norse Ericson had wintered in the north earlier).
Columbus is described as Italian, sailing under the Castilian flag (Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon).
The big date: 1492 (October 12, 1492) marks his landing in the New World after four voyages funded by the Spanish Crown.
First voyage details:
- He sails with three ships, one named the Santa Maria.
- This voyage marks the beginning of a flood of Spanish conquistadors who would conquer large parts of the New World.
Geography of Columbus’s initial landfalls on the first voyage: Bahamas first; Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic); Cuba; Santo Domingo; then routes toward Asia were not achieved as hoped.
Columbus’s broader significance: while not the first to reach the New World, his voyages trigger sustained exploration and conquest by Europeans.
Pre-Columbian contact context: there were earlier contacts (e.g., Norse), but Columbus begins the era when Europeans fully map and divide new lands.

Papal Demarcation and Territorial Division

Pope Alexander VI (a Spanish pope) issued Inter Cetera (Inter caetera), a papal bull that effectively divides the non-European world between Spain and Portugal.
- The line drawn on the map favors Spain on the western side and Portugal on the eastern side.
This division sparks protests from Portugal, which challenges the papal document and threatens war to assert its own claims.
A bilateral settlement emerges: Portugal and Spain agree to adjust the line in their favor to avoid conflict; the two powers proceed with their own spheres more than with a broader, international agreement.
Important note: other powers (France, England, the Dutch) will not be bound by the Treaty of Tordesillas-style division and will challenge Iberian holdings later.
The division under the papal line sets the stage for a Spanish-dominated empire in the New World, especially in the early phases of exploration and conquest.

Naming the New World: Vespucci and the Naming of America

Amerigo Vespucci (Italian from Florence) conducts voyages to the New World and writes journals describing his observations.
Vespucci argues that lands discovered by Columbus are not part of Asia but a completely new continent.
This insight contributes to the naming of America: a German cartographer (as noted in the lecture) places Vespucci’s name on a map, leading to the use of “America.” The transcript mentions Martin Weilzinger in this context, though the broader historical record credits Vespucci and Waldseemüller for the naming.
The 16th century sees the naming of America after Vespucci’s account and the cartographic work that popularizes the term.
The broader impact: the discovery prompts a shift from “New World” to named continents and sets the stage for European colonization and imperial competition.

Conquistadors and the Fall of Pre-Columbian Civilizations

The Spanish Empire’s early expansion involves notable conquistadors who topple major civilizations.
Key figures mentioned: Anando Cortes (Cortés) and Francisco Pizarro.
- Cortés leads the conquest of the Aztec Empire in central Mexico.
- Pizarro leads the conquest of the Inca Empire in Peru.
The conquests are framed as the vanquishing of pre-Columbian civilizations and the rapid expansion of Spanish territory and wealth under the crown.
At this stage, the Spanish Empire becomes the largest empire in the world for a period, often described with the saying that the empire is the “empire on which the sun never sets” under Charles V.
The rise of the Spanish empire coincides with the broader religious and political shifts of the period (Reformation, Reconquista, etc.).

Charles V, the Spanish Empire, and Global Reach

Charles V (the Holy Roman Emperor) is also the king of Spain during the 16th century, overseeing territories in both Europe and the New World.
The phrase associated with this era: Spain as an empire on which the sun never sets, reflecting its vast global reach.
The first circumnavigation of the globe is achieved under Portuguese and later Spanish exploration with Magellan’s crew, setting a precedent for global maritime power.
The Strait of Magellan becomes a notable passage for connecting the Atlantic and Pacific routes before the Panama Canal era.

Global Navigation and Later Infrastructure

The opening of global navigation routes culminates in later infrastructure developments, such as the Panama Canal (not yet built in the period under discussion) that would later shorten the world-spanning voyage.
The long voyage era emphasizes the immense undertaking of early explorers and the strategic importance of sea routes.
Saint Augustine, Florida: established by the Spanish in the latter part of the 16th century and described as “continuously” occupied, a notable early settlement prior to English colonization efforts in North America.

The Colonial Impact and Ethical Reflections

The Columbus era and subsequent colonization had a two-sided impact: expansion of wealth, trade, and exchange; and devastating consequences for indigenous populations and their civilizations.
Early human rights critique from within the period: a Spanish priest, named in the lecture as Pablo Romero de las Casas, authored a short work describing the destruction of the Indies, highlighting early human rights concerns even if the term itself did not exist then.
Jared Diamond’s Guns, Germs, and Steel is referenced to explain Eurasian advantages: European success was not due to inherent superiority but due to superior weapons, technology, and other Eurasian advantages rather than innate traits.
The lecture emphasizes the dual legacy of the Columbian Exchange: benefits for Europe (wealth, resources, new crops) and massive costs for indigenous populations and societies in the Americas.

Economic and Strategic Differences: Iberian Trade vs. Settlement

Spain’s early empire is marked by conquest and settlement, creating colonies with administrative structures and social orders that propagated European governance and language.
Portugal focuses more on exploration and trade, establishing trading posts and early contacts, especially in Africa and Asia, and later in Brazil.
The early phase is shaped by religious, political, and dynastic competition, as well as papal influence and evolving international diplomacy.

Phase II: The Northern European Challenge and the Dutch Opening

The second phase of the Age of Discovery is marked by the rise of Northern European powers after the Iberian dominance of Phase I.
The Dutch are identified as the first to move into Phase II, following a period of intense religious wars (the Eighty Years’ War) and the formation of a new Dutch state.
The Dutch Golden Age emerges with advances in trade, science, and the arts, and with the creation of powerful trading companies, notably the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the Dutch West India Company (WIC).
France and England join the late Phase II expansion, challenging Iberian hegemony and accelerating imperial competition across the globe.
The note on the test: the first to enter the second phase was the Dutch, and this transition is linked to the Dutch Golden Age, their commercial enterprises, and the subsequent global competition for colonies and trade routes.

The Dutch Golden Age, Trade, and Global Commerce

The Dutch rise during the late Phase II as a dominant maritime and trading power.
Two key institutions: Dutch East India Company (VOC) and Dutch West India Company (WIC), which facilitated Dutch expansion in Asia, Africa, and the Americas.
The Dutch challenge Iberian holdings, especially in Asia, and contribute to the broader era of global imperial competition.

The Scramble for Africa and the Legacy of Imperialism

The lecture foreshadows the long-term consequences of European imperialism: the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century, with Africa partitioned among European powers.
This imperialism leaves a lasting legacy on the continent, including political borders, economic structures, and social changes that persist today.

Important People and Concepts to Remember

Columbus (1492 landing; four voyages; funded by Isabella and Ferdinand; Castilian flag; ships including the Santa Maria).
Pope Alexander VI and Inter caetera (papal division of the non-European world between Spain and Portugal).
Amerigo Vespucci (journals describing the New World as a new continent, leading to the naming of America by a German cartographer).
Martin Weilzinger (mentioned in relation to naming America; note: the transcript names him in this context).
Anando Cortes (Cortés) and Francisco Pizarro (conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires).
Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor; king of Spain; empire described as the sun never setting).
Bartolomé de Las Casas (referred to here as Pablo Romero de las Casas) and his critique of the destruction of the Indies.
Jared Diamond’s Guns, Germs, and Steel (argument about Eurasian advantages—superior weapons, not inherent superiority).
Saint Augustine, Florida (first continuous Spanish settlement in the United States).

Key Dates and Terms to Remember (with LaTeX-style notation)

1492 – Columbus’s first voyage and arrival in the New World.
10/12/1492 – Sighting of land during Columbus’s first voyage.
The Age of Discovery spans roughly the middle of the 15^{ ext{th}} to the 17^{ ext{th}} century.
The late-15th to early-16th centuries – rise of the Spanish Empire under Charles V; the phrase “empire on which the sun never sets.”
The 16th century – the conquests of Cortés (Aztec) and Pizarro (Inca).
The Eighty Years’ War – Dutch revolt that leads to Dutch independence and the rise of the Dutch Golden Age.
The late 19th century – the Scramble for Africa and the division of Africa among European powers.

Connections to broader themes

The transition from exploration to empire-building, and the shift from trade-post strategies to large-scale territorial control.
The interplay between religious reformations (Reformation, Catholic monarchs) and the expansion of European empires.
The long-term global consequences of early exploration, including cultural exchanges, population displacement, and economic integration (Columbian Exchange).
The ethical and human rights perspectives that emerged, albeit slowly, from observers within the period (e.g., Las Casas) and the later scholarly critique of Eurocentric narratives (e.g., Diamond).

Study tips for the exam (based on the transcript)

Be able to distinguish Phase I (Iberian focus: Portugal and Spain) from Phase II (Northern European powers: the Dutch, English, French).
Know Columbus’s voyage details, funding sources, the vessels, and the significance of the 1492 landing date and subsequent voyages.
Understand the papal division (Inter caetera) and the political maneuvering that followed between Spain and Portugal, including bilateral adjustments.
Recognize Vespucci’s role in recognizing a new continent and the naming of America, along with the map-based propagation of the name.
Identify Cortés and Pizarro as pivotal conquerors of major empires (Aztec and Inca) and their impact on indigenous civilizations.
Recall the long-term imperial context: Charles V, the global reach of the Spanish Empire, and the idea of an empire without sunset.
Recall the shift to Dutch dominance in Phase II and the role of trading companies (VOC, WIC) in establishing a new era of global commerce.
Be ready to discuss the lasting legacies of European imperialism, including the Scramble for Africa and the enduring consequences for the African continent.