Governors-General of India (1862 - 1905)

1. Lord Elgin I (1862-1863)

• Introduced the Indian High Court Act (1862)

2. Lord Lawrence (1864-1869)

• Caused the Anglo-Bhutanese War.

3. Lord Mayo (1869-1872)

• First Census conducted in 1872.

• Introduced Financial Distribution between centre and state.

• Established Mayo College for the royal elite.

• Only Governor-General killed in India; assassinated by Sher Ali in Port Blair.

4. Lord Northbrook (1872-1896)

• Introduced Civil Marriage and Arya Samaj marriage.

• Passed the Universal Marriage Act (1872) allowing intercaste marriage.

5. Lord Lytton (1876-1880)

• Enacted the Vernacular Press Act (1878).

• Introduced the Arms Act (1878).

• Faced criticism for the handling of the Famine of 1876, citing high taxation rates and natural drought.

• Ignored famine and organized the Durbar to proclaim Queen Victoria as "Empress of India."

• Abolished cotton tax for British traders.

• Lowered civil services exam age from 21 to 19.

6. Lord Ripon (1880-1884)

• Most loved Governor-General.

• Repealed the Arms and Vernacular Press Acts.

• Conducted regular censuses.

• Established local self-governments: Panchayats and Municipal Boards.

• Hunter Commission focused on primary education and women's education.

• Proposed the Illbert Bill to allow Indian judges to try English judges.

7. Lord Dufferin (1884-1888)

• Involved in the III Anglo-Burmese War (1885-1886).

• Founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885.

8. Lord Lansdowne (1888-1894)

• Introduced the Indian Councils Act (1892) introducing indirect elections.

9. Lord Elgin II (1894-1899)

• First British officer Rands killed by Chapekar Brothers, marking the first political murder.

10. Lord Curzon (1899-1905)

• Enforced the Indian Universities Act to control the Indian Universities.

• Established the Raleigh Commission.

• Responsible for the Partition of Bengal.

Socio-Religious Problems in 19th Century India

• General Issues: Education, gender, superstition

• Specific Problems: Sati, widow and child marriages, female infanticide

• Muslims' Issues: Pardah system, polygyny; reformist movements aimed at modernization and scientific temper. Revivalist movements attempted to restore old systems, e.g., Wahabi Movement, Arya Samaj.

Causes of Socio-Religious Movements

• Rise of modern education and influence of revolutions in other countries, e.g., France.

• Pessimistic attitudes toward British and Christian missionary activity.

• Sanskritization among the upper castes.

Impact of These Movements

• Positive reforms such as the removal of Sati, banning of child infanticide, focus on women's education, and increased national consciousness.

• Nationalist views led to a sense of cultural consciousness and women empowerment.

• Negative outcomes included the rise of communal consciousness and caste-based identity, contributing to feelings of insecurity among communities.

Reformist Leaders & Movements

Raja Ram Mohan Roy

• Well-educated and skilled in various languages.

• Influenced by the French Revolution; utilized logical reasoning.

• Founded Vedanta College in Calcutta in 1825, introducing modern subjects.

Orthodox Movements

• Led by Swami Shraddhanand, established Gurukul parallel to Dayanand Anglo Vedic School.

Moderates

• Promoted change, led by Lala Hansraj and Lala Lajpat Rai; focused on educational reform.

Brahmo Sabha (1828)

• Under Debendranath Tagore, led to the formation of Brahmo Samaj, advocating rational worship.

• Split led to the All-India Brahmo Samaj by leaders such as Keshub Chandra Sen.

Khilafat Movement and Non-Cooperation Movement

• Background: Anti-British sentiment fueled by events such as the Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh massacre, and Khilafat issues post-WWI related to Turkey.

• Gandhi's Leadership: Advocated for non-violent resistance as a method to achieve independence, primarily through the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation movement that united Hindus and Muslims against the British.

Quit India Movement (1942)

• Launch: Against British rule, led by Gandhi after prominent leaders were arrested.

• Participation: Spontaneous and largely unorganized, significant for mass unrest and public protests against British authority, resulting in mass arrests.

• Women’s Role: Women took active roles in protests, exemplified by leaders like Aruna Asaf Ali, whose actions during the movement symbolized women's significant contribution.

Theories on Partition

• Causes & Context: Failure of Congress to integrate Muslims, leading to the rise of the Muslim League and calls for Pakistan.

• Historiographical Debate: Examining the roles of different leaders, movements, and the socio-political context leading to partition. Varied interpretations on the motivations and implications of partition.

Conclusion

• The socio-political landscape in colonial India from 1862 to 1947 revolved around various movements driven by significant figures, leading to eventual independence, albeit with the profound consequence of partition, shaping modern India.