Science Exam Review Topics
Taha Salman
Topics to be covered on the exam:
CHEMISTRY
Nomenclature (Binary Ionic, Multivalent, Polyatomic, Covalent)
Balancing EquationsWord Equations
Skeletal Equations
Types of ReactionsAcids and Bases
pH scale
BIOLOGY
The Cell CycleMitosisParts of the Cell (Animal and Plant Cells)Stem Cells
Cancer
The Digestive System (function, structures)
The Circulatory System (function, structures)
The Respiratory System (function, structures)
Interactions of the various systems
OPTICS
What is Light
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Reflection
Refraction
Total Internal Reflection
Optical Phenomena
Ray diagrams (mirrors)
Calculations (mirrors and lenses)
Human Vision
CLIMATE CHANGE
The greenhouse effect
What is climate change
Anthropogenic causes of climate change
Proxy records
Albedo effect
Feedback loop
Biology Grade 10 Notes
Cell Structure and Organization
Cell Wall
Function: Protect and support cells
Cannot be found in animal/human cells
Made of cellulose in plants
Cell Membrane
Function: Protects cells
In all cells
Controls movement of materials in/out of the cell
Small molecules transfer through phospholipids
Larger molecules transfer through proteins
Cytoplasm
In between the membrane and nucleus
Contains organelles
Cytosol is a jelly-like substance (mainly water)
Nucleus
Control Center of cell
Contains chromosomes (DNA)
Nucleolus
Dense area within Nucleus
Ribosomes are created
Mitochondria
Function: Creates energy using glucose and oxygen
Sausage shaped
Ribosome
Function: Create protein
Attached to endoplasmic reticulum or floating in cytoplasm
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Function: Transports materials through cell
Ribosomes may be attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Function: Modify and explore proteins
Flattened sac
Produces vesicles (transport sacs)
Lysosome
Formed by Golgi complex
Contains enzymes that break down worn out cell parts and large molecules
Vacuole
Function: Helps with water regulation in plants; Store food; Help some organisms move
Fluid filled space made of water, sugar, and starch
Large in plant cells
Centriole (2 in Centrosomes)
Small protein structures
Critical to cell division
(Called Asters in plant cells)
Chloroplasts
Found in green plants and some protists
Convert sunlight into food
Cilia and Flagella
Fine protein fibres
Used for locomotion
Cilia - Short and abundant
Flagella - Long and sparse
Animal cells only
Cytoskeleton
Protein fibers that keep organelles in place
Give structure to cell
Cell Organization
Cell Growth Cycle
Mitosis
Occurs in everyday somatic cells
Purpose is to divide into daughter cells
Chromosome number remains the same
Four stages of mitosis
Prophase
Chromosomes condense
Metaphase
Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
Nucleus has been dissolved
Anaphase
Chromosomes move away onto opposite sides of the cell
Are being pulled by mitotic spindles
Telophase
Chromosomes are on opposite sides
Nuclei are starting to form
Cytokinesis
Splits cytoplasm after Mitosis
Cleavage furrow forms in animal cells
Cell Wall forms in plant cells
Meiosis
Function: Sexual Reproduction
8 stages + Interphase + Cytokinesis
Occurs in germ cells
Produces 4 haploid daughter cells (cells with half information)
Chromosome number is halved in each daughter cell
Goal: Make daughter cells with exactly half as many chromosomes as the starting cell
Diploid becomes 4 haploid cells
Produces gametes (sex cells: sperm, eggs which have 23 cells)
Gametes have 23 chromosomes because they are haploids which will form 46
Reduction division (you divide twice)
Meiosis I
Prophase I
Chromosomes condense and thicken
Recombinant Chromosomes
Metaphase I
Put in middle in pairs
Anaphase I
Spindle pairs pull chromosomes away
Telophase I
Meiosis II
Prophase II
Spindles start to form
Anaphase II
Chromosomes file in the middle (not in pairs)
Telophase II
Chromatids are pulled by spindle fibers
Systems
Digestive System
Function: To break down food and water so that nutrients can be absorbed by the body and waste can be eliminated
Mouth
Begins process of breaking down food
Mechanical: Mouth and Tongue
Chemical: Saliva and Enzymes
Bolus: Ball of food compacted in mouth
Esophagus
Transports food from mouth to stomach
Muscular tube
Food moves by peristalsis (Smooth muscle contractions)
Stomach
Breaks down food
Mechanical: Churns food with muscular contractions
Chemical: Stomach lining produces enzymes and acids
Chyme: Partially digested contents
Small Intestine
Absorption of nutrients
Nutrients diffuse through wall and absorb into bloodstream
Wall is made with ridges to absorb more nutrients
About 6m in length
Villi: Tiny projections that line the small intestine to increase absorption
Large Intestine
Water is absorbed into body from undigested food
About 1.5 m in length
Rectum
Remaining solid matter is stored
Anus
Remaining solid matter exits
Liver
Accessory Organ
Produces bile which breaks down fats
Gallbladder
Accessory Organ
Stores and releases bile as needed
Pancreas
Accessory Organ
Produces insulin enzyme to regulate blood sugar concentration
Circulatory System
Function: Transporting nutrients, oxygen, and waste across the body
Heart
Circulates blood and oxygen throughout the body
Located in the left side of your chest
This division protects oxygen rich blood from oxygen poor blood
Heart is made of four valves to flow blood in one direction
Each valve has cusps that open per heartbeat
Blood Vessels
Arteries
Thick walled vessels that transport oxygen-rich blood from the heart
Veins
Thin walled vessels that transport oxygen-poor blood to the heart
Capillaries
1-cell thick vessel between arteries and veins with thin walls that let gases, waste, and nutrients pass easily with diffusion
Oxygen diffuses from blood to tissues
Carbon Dioxide diffuses from tissues to blood
Right side of heart takes oxygen-poor blood and capillaries change it to oxygen-rich blood to pump
Respiratory System
Function: To obtain oxygen for the body and release Carbon dioxide
Lungs
Contains structures needed for gas exchange
Pair of spongy-air filled organs
Trachea
(The Windpipe)
Inhaled air passes through the trachea
Bronchi
Air from trachea passes through the 2 bronchi (further split into bronchioles)
Cilia
Hair-like structures lining the primary bronchus
Removes debris from lungs
Alveoli
Gas exchange occurs
Bronchioles end at Alveoli
Gas exchange
Capillaries surround the alveoli
Oxygen diffuses into oxygen-poor blood
CO2 diffuses out of capillary and is exhaled
Pharynx
Cavity at back of the throat
Larynx
Bulgy area in throat
Voice box
Epiglottis
Prevents food from entering windpipe and lungs
Leaf-shaped flap
Diaphragm
Muscle below the lungs
Inhaling contracts the diaphragm
Exhalating relaxes the diaphragm
Short contractions cause hiccups
Nervous System
Senses the environment and coordinates responses (Keeps homeostasis (staying in an optimal range for life processes)
Central Nervous System
Brain
Coordinates all functions of the body and reasoning
Cerebrum
Largest part of brain
Responsible for most things
Controls voluntary acts (thinking, speech, vision, hearing)
Cerebellum
Controls balance and muscle coordination
Alcohol and drugs affected
Brain Stem (Medulla)
Controls involuntary acts
Spinal Cord
Sends sensory information to brain
Relays motor instructions from the brain
Relays automatic reflexes
Peripheral Nervous System
Controls muscles
Carries information from senses
Regulates involuntary functions (breathing, heartbeat, digestion)
Sensory Receptors and Organs
Touch Skin
Sight Eyes
Smell Nose
Taste Mouth
Hearing Ears
Temperature
Pressure
The Neuron
Specialized cell of the nervous system
Cell body is cell support center
Dendrites connect to cell body to receive messages from cells
Axos passes messages from body to other neurons and muscles
Terminal branches connect with other cells
Pathway of Nerve signals
SR - SN - IN - MN - E
Reflex Arc
When there is not enough time to think the body goes through a reflex arc
This does not involve the brain
Musculoskeletal System
Provides structure and protection to organs and systems necessary for life
Average adult has 206 bones
Bones
Dense material containing cells and minerals (calcium and phosphorous)
Canals contain nerves and blood vessels
Bones can regenerate due to livings cells
Osteoporosis
Loss of calcium
Women are more prone
Painless but injuries are common
VItamin D and Calcium foods help
Connective Tissues
Bone Tissue
Only a small part is living
Ligaments
Tough/Elastic
Holds bones together
Made of collagen fibres (harder to regenerate)
Cartilage
Special cells
Surrounded by collagen fibres
Strong and Flexible
Located where bones meet
Muscle
Cardiac Muscle
Lines the walls of the heart
Smooth Muscle
Lines the digestive system
Skeletal Muscle
Associated with movement via Tendons
Tendons are less elastic but a more stable version of ligaments
Antagonistic Muscle
Opposing muscles that return bones back to their original position
Reproductive System
Reproduction: The process by which cells and organisms produce children of same kind
Sexual Reproduction
Fusion of gametes
Two parents involved
Includes humans, animals, and sometimes plants
Sex Organs
Produce Sex Cells
Gametes are sperm and egg cells; They have half as many chromosomes as a normal body cell
Fertilization is when gametes meet and start forming
Produce a zygote
Zygote develops into an Embryo
Male Anatomy (XY)
Sperm
One cell
Head contains DNA to enter egg
Tail (Flagellum) gives propulsion
Mitochondria gives energy
Testis
Produces the sperm
Inside the scrotum
Hangs outside to decrease temperature (3 degrees)
Female Anatomy (XX)
Eggs begin in the ovary
Egg contains 400 000 immature follicles
When mature, ovary releases egg into fallopian tubes, waiting for sperm
Types of sexual reproduction
Conjugation
For bacteria without nuclei
Two bacteria join at their membrane
Share pieces of DNA
Asexual Reproduction
No fusion of gametes
Single parent involved
Types: (Fission, budding, spore formation, fragmentation, regeneration, vegetative propagation)
Interdependent Systems/Homeostasis
Homeostasis
The state of steady internal, physical, and chemical conditions maintained by living systems
You decide to play soccer on a hot, sunny day. You start to sweat. How will your body maintain homeostasis?
Muscular system → as you run, your muscles use up energy and nutrients stored in the blood.
Respiratory System → as you run, you need more oxygen so you start to breathe faster
Nervous System → your brain signals that you need more energy, nutrients, and oxygen to continue to play soccer.
Circulatory System → your heart beats faster so the blood cells can get energy, nutrients, and oxygen to the muscles.
Plants
Systems
Shoot System
Above the ground
Produce sugar from photosynthesis
Reproduction
Leaf
Provides a surface where photosynthesis can take place
Photosynthesis: Turning water and carbon dioxide into glucose (food) and oxygen
Stomata
Small openings in the leaf for CO2 to enter and for oxygen and excess water to exit
Guard Cells
Control the opening of the Stomata
Cuticle
Outer waxy layer of protection
Mesophyll
Specialized tissue in leaf where photosynthesis occurs
Chloroplasts
Convert light energy into food
Thylakoids act as solar panels
Chlorophyll converts light energy into glucose
Stem
Physical Support
Transports water, nutrients, and sugars
Vascular tissue
Acts like blood vessels
Xylem transports water and minerals from roots to leaves
Phloem transports sugars from leaves to rest of plant
Flower
Reproduction
Pollen + Egg = Seed
Stamen
Male Sex Organ
A long filament with an anther at the tip that produces pollen
Pistil
Female Sex Organ
Stigma collects pollen
Style transports pollen
Ovary (produces eggs)
Root System
Below the ground
Anchor the plant
Root cap protects meristematic tissue (which allows roots to grow)
Collect water and nutrients from ground and transports to stem
Root hairs branch out and absorb water and nutrients
Stores food
Transpiration
Process of giving off water vapour
Optics Grade 10 Notes
Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Crest
Highest point
Trough
Lowest point
Rest Position
No wave
Wavelength
Crest to crest
Amplitude
Wave height from rest position to crest/trough
Frequency
# of waves in a given time period
Hertz
Electromagnetic Radiation
Light
Light is a form of energy/a wave
Can be detected by the eye
Moves in all direction around the source
Visible light is only a fraction of the energy that surrounds us
When light is produced, another energy is converted into light energy
Sources of Light
Natural Sources
Sun
Fire
Stars
Firefly (Bioluminescence)
Volcano
Artificial Sources
Phone
Flashlight
Light bulb
Projector
Visible light spectrum
Prisms can separate white light into rainbow colours (in the order of decreasing wavelength)
Objects that produce light are luminous
Luminescence is the emission of light that does not produce heat
Includes visible and invisible light energy
Made up of electric and magnetic fields
Radiation Types
Bigger wavelength = Less frequency = Redder
Smaller wavelength = More frequency = Bluer
How is light produced?
Luminous objects
Cold light (Little to no heat)
Types of light
Incandescence - An object gets hotter and produces light (Red to Blue) (Candle)
Electric discharge - Light made when an electric current passes through a gas (Lightning)
Phosphorescence - Object absorbs UV light, emits it as light over a period of time (Glow in the dark)
Fluorescence - Object absorbs UV light, emits it as light immediately (Highlighter)
Chemiluminescence - Light made as a direct product of a chemical reaction (Cold light) (Glow sticks)
Bioluminescence - Living organisms produce light as a result of a chemical reaction in them (Cold light) (Algae)
Triboluminescence - Light produced from friction (Rubbing certain crystals)
LEDs - Light is produced from an electric current flowing through a semiconductor (material only allowing current to flow in one way) (Christmas lights)
Reflection of Light
Characteristics of light
Light travels in straight lines (rays)
Light Rays
A luminous object radiates light in all directions
There are an infinite number of rays from a candle so it forms a sphere
Easily seen with lasers
Incident rays
Light rays coming from a source are called incident rays.
Light rays may
Bounce off
Be absorbed
Pass through
based on the surface they strike
Properties of light
Transparent - All/most light pass through
Translucent - Some light passes through
Opaque - Light is reflected or absorbed
Mirrors (Terminology)
Image: Copy of an object through use of light
Mirror: Polished surface reflecting an image
Plane Mirror: A flat mirror with a reflective surface
Normal: An imaginary line perpendicular to the mirror
Angle of incidence: Angle between the incident ray and the normal
Angle of reflection: Angle between the reflected ray and the normal
Plane mirror rules:
Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
Normal is 90 degrees from the reflecting surface
Incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal all lie in the same plane
Images in Mirrors
Real or Virtual
Real
A cinema screen
Virtual
SALT
Size - Compared to object
Attitude - Inverted or upright
Location - Compared to mirror/object
Type - Real or Virtual
Lateral Inversion - Words are flipped horizontally
Reflected rays extend behind the mirror and show the location of virtual image
Ray Box
Box containing a lamp
Lamp creates a beam of light
Types of Reflection
Specular Reflection
When incident rays strike a smooth surface, the light reflects at the same angle as it hit the surface
Diffuse Reflection
When incident rays strike an irregular surface the light scatters. Angles of incidence and reflection differ.
Dyslexia
Too much glare of reflected light on white paper
Contrast makes it difficult to read
Colours
We only see light that travels to our eyes
The Eye
Rods
Basic vision
Responds to low light
Cones
Colour vision
Responds to high light
Additive Colour Theory of Light
White light is composed of different colours of light
Can be produced by combining red green and blue.
How see see screens
Secondary colours: Magenta, Yellow, and Cyan
Subtractive Colour Theory
Uses magenta, yellow, and cyan
Creating Colour
Inks, dyes, and paints are made of pigments
Pigments are chemicals that absorb some colours and reflect others
White light shines on an object and pigments absorb and reflect certain colours (because white light has all colours)
When light is shone on grass, red and blue are absorbed but green is reflected (into our eyes)
Reflected colours are what we see
Black exists when all colours are absorbed
White exists when all colours are reflected
Rectilinear Propagation
Light always travels in straight lines
Tyndall Effect
The reflection of light by very small particles in suspension in a transparent medium (the visible beam of headlights in fog is caused by this effect. The droplets scatter the light, making the beams visible.)
Laser
Produces electromagnetic waves of the same energy
Pure in colour
One concentrated beam of light
Sig Figs
Which digits are really giving me information?
Sig Figs tell how precise it is
All numbers greater than 0 are significant
Include following zeros if decimal is involved
Mirrors
Plane Mirrors
Flat
Concave Mirrors →)
Converging mirror
Curved inwards
(Focal Point) Meet at point of convergence
2 x Focal Point = Center of Curvature
Concave Ray Diagram
Draw parallel (to principal axis) line from top of object to mirror
Continue that line by bouncing back through the focal point
Draw line from top of object through focal length
Continue that line by bouncing back with a parallel line
Intersection of the two lines is the top of the image
Bottom of image is on principal axis
Virtual = Upright
Real = Inverted
Convex Mirrors →(
Always Smaller. Upright, Behind mirror, Virtual
Convex Ray Diagram
Draw parallel line from top of object to mirror
Draw a line from that POI to the F and back
Draw a line from the top of the object to C
Intersection is top of image
Refraction
Light travels in straight rays
When it travels from one material (medium) to another, they bend
Direction of bends depends on density of mediums
Density also changes speed of rays
They either bend toward or away from the normal
Refraction occurs at boundaries of mediums
Occurs because speed of light changes in different mediums (because of different densities)
Speed of light in a vacuum is 3.00x10^8 m/s (rep. by c)
Direction of refraction
If light bends to a denser medium, it will bend toward the normal
If light bends to a less dense medium, it will bend away from the normal
Index of refraction
The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a medium
Snell’s Law
Mirror Equation
do=distance of object
di= distance of image
F = focal length
Dispersion
When white light separates into different colours
Each colour has a different speed (v), and a different n value
As the angle of incidence increases, the intensity of light weakens in the refracted ray and stronger in the reflected ray
Critical Angle
Angle of incidence where the refracted ray refracts along the boundary line (90* to the normal)
Total Internal Reflection
When light cannot refract at all, only reflects back
Only when light travels to a less dense medium
The Eye
Cross Section
Cornea
Outer layer of the eye
Made of clear living cells
Light arriving at the cornea is refracted at the pupil
Lens
Converging lens (Convex)
Receives images
Focal length can be adjusted for different needs
Attached to ciliary muscles which contract or relax to alter shape of lens
Ciliary Body (muscle)
Contract or relax to alter shape of lens
When contracting: Lens is thicker and focuses on nearby objects
When relaxing: Lens is thinner and flatter, focuses on distant object
Pupil
Grows and contracts to adjust to light
Grows when dark
Contracts when light
Hole
Iris
Coloured (based on pigments)
Muscle surrounding the pupil
Controls pupil size
Retina
When the focal point is on the retina, then images are clear
Light-sensitive tissue
At the back of the eye
Light is ALREADY focused (by cornea, pupil, lens)
Image is inverted but our brain flips it
Optic Nerve
Connects eye to brain
Difficulty to see
Presbyopia (40+): Eyes can accommodate when young and flexible
Hyperopia (Farsighted)
When focus point is behind the eye
Can focus on distant objects
Eyes cannot make the lens thick enough
Not refracted enough
Fixed with converging lenses
Myopia (Nearsighted)
Can focus on near objects
Eyes cannot make lens thin enough
Refracted too much
Fixed with diverging lenses
Astigmatism (Out of focus)
Irregular shape of cornea
Unable to focus light rays on retina
Lenses
Refract light (rather than reflect)
Curved and transparent
Since light can hit either side of the lens, there are two focal points.
The side that the incident rays come from are called secondary principal focus (F’) F prime
Converging Lens
Convex
Parallel light rays refract towards the principal axis
Will meet at focal point
Diverging Lens
Concave lens
Parallel light rays refract away from the principal axis
Focal point before lens
Move away from each other
Magnification/Equations
Magnification
A change in size of the image compared to the size of the object
M = Magnification
H = Height
D = Distance
Mirror Equation
f=focal length
Climate Change Grade 10 Notes
Taha Salman
Relation to Optics
Radiation can be
Absorbed by the particle (gaining energy)
Transmitted through the particle
Reflected off the particle
Energy Budget
Reflected Energy
49% of energy is reflected off the earth
Does not contribute to climate change
Absorbed Energy
51% is absorbed by the land and oceans
Albedo Effect
Not everything is reflected and absorbed equally
Albedo: measure of how much of the sun’s radiation is reflected by a surface (0.75 means 75% of sunlight is reflected)
High Albedo = Cold
Low Albedo = Warm
Feedback Loops
Positive Feedback Loops
Because one thing happens, it increases the amount of something else happening, increasing the initial activity
Product of the reaction leads to an increase of the reaction
Negative Feedback Loops
Because one thing happens, it increasing the amount of something else happening, decreasing the initial activity
Product of the reaction leads to a decrease of the reaction
Earth’s Climate System & Ozone
Climate: Pattern of weather conditions in a large area over a long period of time
Climate Change
Earth’s temperature is increasing
Because of the law of conservation of mass, more combustion means more CO2
Less deforestation means less photosynthesis which leaves more CO2
Ocean Acidification
Carbon dioxide forms with water to make Carbonic Acid
This makes the oceans pH level decrease
CO2+H2O=H2CO3 (CARBONIC ACID)
Spheres
the atmosphere
gases
the hydrosphere
water (oceans, lakes, ice, etc)
Reflects and absorbs electromagnetic radiation
Energy transfer in the hydrosphere
Air moves from high to low pressure causing air currents
Winds from the north are cold while equator are warmer
Wind over water has more precipitation
Water near the poles are colder and saltier (and denser)
Sinks to ocean floor
Warm equator water flores towards the poles to balance
Warm water floats and cold sinks
the lithosphere
landforms
Absorbs energy from the sun
Can result in rain shadow effect (picks up moisture on one side of mountains, leaving other side dry)
the biosphere
living things
Cellular respiration
Certain organisms change amount and type of gases in the atmosphere
Affects the amount of absorbed solar radiation
Atmosphere
ETMST
Stratosphere and Troposphere are the focus for climate change
Troposphere
Liveable conditions
Clouds and weather
78% N2, 21% O2, 1% other (CO2, Ar, He, H2, O3)
When sunlight reacts with pollutants, Photochemical Smog is created
Keep ozone in stratosphere
Gas pollutants in the troposphere react with sunlight to create ozone (O3), which is harmful to plants and animals.
Stratosphere
Ozone Layer
Protects living things from harmful UV rays
Absorbs UV radiation
In the 70s, CFC (chlorofluorocarbons) usage created a ‘hole’ in the ozone layer
CFCs reach the ozone layer and break down, also breaking down the O3.
1987: Montreal protocol – treaty that decided on stopping use of CFCs
The ozone layer has since been recovering and thickening
Emitting
70% of solar energy that reaches earth is absorbed
It does not heat up because
Absorbed light is converted to infrared radiation and is re-emitted by the earth
Amount of energy radiated is equal to the amount absorbed from the sun
Equilibrium: A state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced
Earth is out of balance because
The Greenhouse Effect
Why the earth is not so cold (not negative)
Without the greenhouse effect, Earth would be fatally cold
There would be an average global temperature of -18C rather than 15C
Natural Greenhouse Effect
Most heat escapes back into space
During day, the atmosphere protects earth from harmful light
During night, the atmosphere traps heat, warming the earth
There must be a balance
Thermal energy from the earth is trapped by GHGs
Anthropogenic Greenhouse Effect
Human enhanced
Actions carried out by humans (burning fossil fuels releases CO2, trapping more heat)
It is now harder for heat to escape the atmosphere
Traps greenhouse gases (CO2, Water Vapour H2O, Methane CH4) which re-emit heat, heating earth’s surface
Greenhouse gas concentration has rapidly increased in the past century
Carbon Sinks
Things that absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and store the carbon (in another form)
Forests use CO2 for photosynthesis
Oceans dissolve CO2 in water
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)
Carbon Dioxide CO2
Volcano Eruptions
Forest Fires
Cellular respiration
Burning fossil fuels
Cars
Methane CH4
Cows
Animal Digestion
Forest Fires
Plant Decomposition
Water Vapour H2O
Most abundant greenhouse gas (25%)
Accounts for ⅔ of the greenhouse effect
Nitrous Oxide N2O
300x more thermal energy absorbed than CO2
Fertilizer
Chlorofluorocarbons CFCs
Dangerous
Strong greenhouse gas
Many governments have stopped production of CFCs
Proxy Records
Proxy: The authority to represent someone else (providing information)
Environmental proxy records: Stores of information in tree rings, ice cores, and fossils that can be measured to give clues to what the climate was like in the past
Ice Cores
Tiny air bubbles that have been trapped inside can be tested for various gases
Dust trapped inside can show past volcanic eruptions
Tree Rings
Dendrochronology - Study of tree rings
Trees form ONE RING PER YEAR
Age of trees
Warm, wet years create thicker rings (more nutrients)
Cold, dry years create thinner rings (less nutrients)
Coral Reefs
Layers of growth each season give clues about the temperature of the ocean (+ocean acidification)
When the ocean is cooler, coral grows slower
Stalagmites and Stalactites
Stalagmites and Stalactites grow faster when there is more precipitation
Rocks and Fossils
Looking at rocks and layers of soil for clues like plant pollen or fossils give us an idea on previous climate
On the ocean floor, scientists can find fossils of plants and animals that may not have been there before, suggesting a change in climate
Effects of Climate Change
As temperature increases, sea levels increase due to ice melting and polar bears lose access to seals. Starvation.
ATMOSPHERIC CHANGES
Heat Waves
Heat alerts issued
Increase in smog
Public health concerns (elderly, patients,)
Stay inside
More A/C, more electricity, more heat, more A/C (POSITIVE feedback loop)
Drought
Loss of crops
Death to livestock
Starvation
Loss of income
Wildfires
Hot/Dry forests catch fire easier
FIres spread rapidly
Death and disaster
Floods
Warmer air temperatures melt snow rapidly
Streams and rivers cannot handle all the water/run-off
Floods damage property and infrastructure
(When floods happen, sewage is picked up and brought to ground)
Storms
Changes in air temperature cause changes in weather patterns
Increased air temp. increase s winds, moves air masses, promotes storms/tornados
Storms are now more frequent and severe
Hydrospheric Changes
Melting Ice
Sea levels start to rise, flooding
Shoreline habitats die
Shorelines change, changing ocean currents
Reduces fresh water accessibility
Ocean Warming
Oceans absorb less CO2 (less effective carbon sink)
Warm water reduces growth of plankton (affecting food chain)
Less phytoplankton, less photosynthesis, more CO2 in atmosphere
Warm water can mean increased intensity of hurricanes
Ocean Currents
Rely on temperature and salinity differences between equator and poles
Ocean temperatures increase with global warming
Global conveyor belt slows and become less effective at distributing temperature and nutrients
Changes on Wildlife
Ocean Ecosystems
Coral reefs are destroyed by warmer water, sedimentation, storm damage, and acidity
Acidification of sea water dissolves shells and skeleton of many aquatic organisms
Range Shifts Occur
Species no longer in areas once habitable to them
New species may become invasive
Migratory patterns changing
Changes to/Loss of Habitat
Animals migrate, adapt, or die
Major impacts to food webs
Creates threatened and endangered species