Social Media Mindsets and Well-Being in Emerging Adults: A Serial Mediation of Facebook Addiction and Stress

Academic Editor and Publication Details:

Academic Editor: Vincent P Clark
Received: 30 January 2025
Revised: 7 March 2025
Accepted: 10 March 2025
Published: 12 March 2025
Citation: Krok, D.; Półtorak, M. Social Media Mindsets and Well-Being in Emerging Adults: A Serial Mediation of Facebook Addiction and Stress. Brain Sci. 2025, 15, 301.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15030301
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors; Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
License: Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Abstract:

Background/Objectives: Social media plays a pivotal role in the lives of emerging adults, a period marked by rapid technological advancements. The study aims to explore the relationships between attitudes toward social media and psychological well-being, considering the mediating effects of Facebook addiction and perceived stress.
Methods: The study involved 294 participants with a mean age of 23.76 years (SD = 3.23). Variables were assessed using the Social Media Mindsets Scale, Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale, Perceived Stress Scale, Psychological Well-Being Scale, and Satisfaction with Life Scale. Correlation and mediation analyses were performed.
Results: The study confirmed that attitudes toward social media were positively correlated with psychological well-being, while Facebook addiction and perceived stress acted as serial mediators between these attitudes and overall well-being.
Conclusions: Interventions aimed at preventing social media addiction and reinforcing stress management techniques may help young people maintain their well-being and mental health.
Keywords: social media mindsets; well-being; Facebook addiction; stress; emerging adults

1. Introduction:

Emerging adulthood is a distinct developmental period from the late teens to mid-20s, characterized by emotional instability, identity seeking, and a view of the world as full of opportunities.
Emerging adulthood corresponds to Generation Z, a group heavily studied due to their substantial online presence, sense of uncertainty, and unique characteristics and values.
Unlike previous generations, Generation Z has grown up with accessible technology, integrating media into their daily routines for shopping, relationship building, sharing experiences, and even as an escape from reality.
The rapid development of technology and social media significantly influences the daily functioning and mindset of young people.
Increased time spent online can lead to feelings of loneliness, depression, and anxiety due to reduced in-person interactions.
The article examines the subjective approach of young people toward social media and its relationship with psychological well-being, Facebook addiction, and perceived stress.
The study is divided into five sections:
- Information about the studied variables and key theories.
- Description of participants, research tools, study procedure, and data analysis approach.
- Presentation of statistical analysis findings.
- Interpretation of results in relation to hypotheses and theories.
- Summary of key takeaways.
The study emphasizes the role of Facebook addiction and stress as mediators between attitudes toward social media, psychological well-being, and life satisfaction, highlighting the significance of psychological mechanisms in shaping well-being.

1.1. Social Media Mindsets and Psychological Well-Being:

Mindset Theory: According to Gollwitzer and Keller [6], individuals evaluate the importance of their goals, reasons for achieving them, and their predispositions.
Model of Action Phases (MAP): Developed by Gollwitzer [7], this model identifies four stages of action influenced by deliberative and implemental mindsets.
- Deliberative Mindset: Involves a cognitive evaluation of the advantages and disadvantages of goals and actions, characterized by openness to new information [8].
- Implemental Mindset: Emphasizes determination and focused attention on strategies to achieve goals [9].
Social Media Mindsets: Refer to general attitudes and beliefs about media and their role in modern life [10], influenced by the perception of control over media and its positive or negative impact [11].
- Agency Dimension: Reflects the sense of control over social media use, including frequency and intensity [10].
- Valence Dimension: Describes the positive or negative attitude toward media [10]. Positive attitudes involve perceiving social media as helpful for maintaining relationships, facilitating personal development, and providing information, while negative attitudes view it as a waste of time with risks.
Perceived control over social media use can lead to conscious choices that influence well-being.
Actions related to social media that are meaningful and allow for personal growth can enhance life satisfaction and well-being.
Satisfaction with Life: A subjective feeling of contentment with one’s current life situation and a positive evaluation of various aspects of life, resulting from an overall assessment of reality [13].
Well-being: A multidimensional construct related to a deeper sense of life purpose, personal values, and happiness [14].
Ryff’s [15] concept of psychological well-being emphasizes personal growth and the realization of one’s potential, going beyond momentary positive affect to include aspects contributing to holistic individual growth.
Positive and controlled social media use can contribute to self-acceptance and personal growth.
Dimensions of Psychological Well-being (Ryff [15]):
- Self-acceptance: Ability to accept oneself, including positive and negative qualities.
- Positive relations with others: Ability to form and maintain satisfying and supportive relationships.
- Autonomy: Ability to make independent decisions and have control over one’s life.
- Environmental mastery: Ability to manage and adapt to the environment.
- Purpose in life: Having goals and a sense of direction.
- Personal growth: Sense of continued development and improvement.
These dimensions are essential for life satisfaction, self-contentment, and reducing the risk of mental disorders.
Social media can serve as a coping mechanism for everyday life, used to escape from reality [17].
Smartphone use can lead to attention distraction and pathological emotion regulation [17].
Addictive use of social networking sites is associated with emotional disorders like anxiety and depression [18].
Time spent on Facebook is related to depressive and anxiety symptoms in adolescents [19].
Excessive social media use is linked to anxiety and depression [20].
Individuals with control over their social media use benefit from it and experience less psychological stress [10].
Social media use can decrease self-control over one’s behavior [21].
Self-control plays an important role in social media usage, with negative relationships between social media use and self-control, as well as between self-control and well-being [22].
Both valence and agency dimensions of social media mindsets were negatively related to psychological distress, anxiety, depression, and stress [11]. Valence was also positively related to life satisfaction.

1.2. The Potential Mediating Role of Facebook Addiction and Perceived Stress:

Social media can fulfill social, informational, cultural, or entertainment purposes, contributing to individual satisfaction and need fulfillment.
When social media use becomes a dominant activity, it can lead to addiction [23].
An increasing number of people are at risk of social media addiction, especially during emerging adulthood.
Mediating factors exist between attitudes toward social media and psychological well-being.
Facebook use is mediated by factors like social support [24].
Active and passive social media use mediate between attitudes and psychological well-being [10].
Internet use, including social media, is connected to the experience of stress, partly due to social comparisons [25, 26].
Experiencing stress lowers happiness levels, while stress reduction interventions increase satisfaction [27].
Information overload from intensive social media use increases stress [28, 29], impacting mental health and leading to disorders like anxiety and depression [24, 30, 31].
Facebook addiction is a behavioral addiction associated with excessive, uncontrolled use of the platform [32], resulting from positive reinforcement like likes and comments [33].
Pathological Internet use is associated with lowered self-esteem, weakened relationships, and exacerbated psychopathological symptoms [34], correlating with reduced psychological well-being [35].
Online/offline integration and self-compassion mediate between Internet addiction and aggression, as well as psychological well-being [35].
Social media addiction is negatively correlated with mental well-being and life satisfaction [36, 37], contributing to mental health issues like depression and anxiety [38].
Facebook addiction is moderately correlated with daily experiences of stress [39–41].
Facebook addiction is negatively correlated with life satisfaction [42], with loneliness and shyness contributing to the negative impact [42].
Social safety mediates the relationship between Facebook addiction and life satisfaction [43].
The study examines the relationship of social media mindsets with well-being among emerging adults within a serial mediation model of Facebook addiction and stress (Figure 1).
Hypotheses:
- Social media mindsets would be positively related to psychological well-being and life satisfaction and negatively related to Facebook addiction and stress.
- Facebook addiction would be positively related to stress.
- Facebook addiction and stress would serially mediate the relationship of social media mindsets with psychological well-being and life satisfaction among emerging adults, respectively.

2. Materials and Methods:

2.1. Participants:

The study included 294 emerging adults (18-29 years old).
The sample consisted of 138 men (46.9%) and 156 women (53.1%), with a mean age of 23.76 years ( $SD = 3.23$ ).
Educational levels:
- 7 participants had primary education.
- 9 had basic vocational education.
- 158 had secondary education.
- 128 had university education.
Inclusion criteria:
- Age within emerging adulthood.
- Cognitive capacity to complete questionnaires.
- No cognitive deficiencies (e.g., serious memory problems, history of psychiatric disorders).
Data were collected in southern Poland.

2.2. Procedure:

Volunteers who met the inclusion criteria were invited to participate.
Participants were provided with information about the study's purpose and procedures.
Informed consent was obtained to guarantee confidentiality.
Participants completed questionnaires in their own time.
No financial reimbursement was provided.
The research protocol was approved by The University Research Ethics Committee at the University of Opole (Approval Code: UREC 65/2024) and adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki.

2.3. Measures:

2.3.1. Social Media Mindsets:

The Social Media Mindsets Scale [10] was used to assess individuals’ expectations, behaviors, attributions, and goals about social media’s role in their lives.
The scale includes twelve items, to which participants respond on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
The scores are calculated on two subscales:
- (1) Valence—represents people’s beliefs that the effects of social media are beneficial or harmful (e.g., “Using social media is meaningful for me” or “Using social media is fun and enjoyable for me”).
- (2) Agency—reflects people’s feelings and opinions that social media use is under their control (e.g., “I’m good at managing the ways I use social media” or “I’m in control of how I use social media”).
Higher scores point to more positive valence beliefs and higher perceived agency.
The reliability coefficients for the present study were Cronbach’s alpha = 0.82 and McDonald’s omega = 0.82 for valence, and Cronbach’s alpha = 0.74 and McDonald’s omega = 0.71 for agency.

2.3.2. Facebook Addiction:

The Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale [44] was applied to measure the level of Facebook addiction.
It includes six items assessed on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (very rarely) to 5 (very often).
These items reflect the following six addiction criteria:
- 1—dominance
- 2—tolerance
- 3—mood change
- 4—relapse
- 5—withdrawal symptoms
- 6—conflict (e.g., “You spend a lot of time thinking about social media or planning how to use it” or “You feel an urge to use social media more and more”).
Higher scores reflect higher levels of Facebook addiction.
The reliability coefficients for the present study were Cronbach’s alpha = 0.83 and McDonald’s omega = 0.82.

2.3.3. Stress:

The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) [45] is a widely used tool that measures the level of stress experienced by individuals in various life domains.
The scale assesses the degree to which people perceive life as unpredictable, uncontrollable, and overburdening (e.g., “In the last month, how often have you been upset because of something that happened unexpectedly” or “In the last month, how often have you felt nervous and stressed?”).
The scale includes ten items, each answered on a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (very often).
Higher scores indicate a higher intensity of perceived stress.
The reliability coefficients for the present study were Cronbach’s alpha = 0.84 and McDonald’s omega = 0.83.

2.3.4. Psychological Well-Being:

The short version of the Psychological Well-Being Scale (PWB) [46] was used to measure an individual’s well-being level regarding personal growth, development, and self-realization.
It comprises eighteen items assessed on a 6-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree).
The scale contains six subscales:
- (1) Autonomy—reflects people’s self-determination and independence as well as an ability to resist social pressures (e.g., “My decisions are not usually influenced by what everyone else is doing”).
- (2) Environmental Mastery—describes one’s sense of mastery and competence in managing the environment and controlling multifaceted activities (e.g., “In general, I feel I am in charge of the situation in which I live”).
- (3) Personal Growth—represents a feeling of continued development and expanding one’s potential (e.g., “With time, I have gained a lot of insight about life that has made me a stronger, more capable person”).
- (4) Positive Relations with Others—reflects satisfying and trusting relationships with others (e.g., “Most people see me as loving and affectionate”).
- (5) Purpose in Life—defines a feeling of having clear goals in life and a sense of directedness (e.g., “I have a sense of direction and purpose in life”).
- (6) Self-Acceptance—reflects a positive and affirmative attitude toward the self (e.g., “When I look at the story of my life, I am pleased with how things have turned out”).
Their sum gives the total score.
Higher scores reflect a higher level of psychological well-being.
Due to the purpose of the current study and the psychometric recommendations, only the total score was used for statistical calculations [46, 47].
The reliability coefficients for the present study were Cronbach’s alpha = 0.88 and McDonald’s omega = 0.87.

2.3.5. Life Satisfaction:

The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) [48] was applied to gauge overall cognitive judgments of satisfaction with one’s life.
It assesses cognitive rather than emotional aspects of life satisfaction (e.g., “In most ways my life is close to my ideal” or “The conditions of my life are excellent”).
The scale consists of five items rated on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
The overall score is calculated by summarizing the scores of individual items.
Higher scores indicate more life satisfaction.
The reliability coefficients for the present study were Cronbach’s alpha = 0.86 and McDonald’s omega = 0.85.

2.4. Data Analysis:

A priori power analysis using G*Power estimated a minimum sample size of 244 participants for a small effect size of 0.05, power of 0.80, and alpha of 0.05 [49].
A larger sample of 294 individuals was included to ensure representativeness and minimize potential errors.
Convergent and discriminant validity were verified by calculating composite reliability (CR), average variance extracted (AVE), and factor loadings.
Composite reliability (CR) values:
- Social media mindsets—valence = 0.76
- Social media mindsets—agency = 0.70
- Facebook addiction = 0.78
- Stress = 0.76
- Psychological well-being = 0.82
- Life satisfaction = 0.80
Average variance extracted (AVE) values:
- Social media mindsets—valence = 0.51
- Social media mindsets—agency = 0.52
- Facebook addiction = 0.52
- Stress = 0.54
- Psychological well-being = 0.52
- Life satisfaction = 0.53
Factor loadings (λ) of all items:
- Social media mindsets—valence = from 0.76 to 0.66
- Social media mindsets—agency = from 0.62 to 0.75
- Facebook addiction = from 0.70 to 0.81
- Stress = from 0.68 to 0.0.82
- Psychological well-being = from 0.63 to 0.83
- Life satisfaction = from 0.61 to 0.86
Common method bias was checked using Harman’s single factor test and variance inflation factor (VIF).
Harman’s one-factor test indicated that the first unrotated factor accounted for 25.49% of the variance, suggesting no common method variance [50].
The amount of multicollinearity in regression analysis was acceptable (VIF = 1.95).
Further analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics, Version 28:
- (1) Two-tailed correlations: To examine initial associations among the study variables.
- (2) Serial mediation analysis: To examine whether social media mindsets (the predictor) directly or/and indirectly—via Facebook addiction and stress (the mediators)—affects well-being (outcome variables).
Model 6 (Hayes [51]) with bootstrapping of 5000 samples and 95% confidence intervals was used to calculate single and serial mediational effects.
Missing data were controlled by case-wise mean substitution.

3. Results:

3.1. Initial Correlations Among Variables:

Pearson correlation coefficients were used to examine relationships among study variables: social media mindsets (valence and agency), psychological well-being, life satisfaction, Facebook addiction, and stress.
Valence correlated positively only with psychological well-being.
Agency correlated positively with psychological well-being and life satisfaction and negatively with Facebook addiction and stress.
Psychological well-being was positively associated with life satisfaction and negatively associated with Facebook addiction and stress.
Life satisfaction was negatively associated with stress.
Facebook addiction was positively associated with stress.
All relationships had weak or moderate correlations.

3.2. Serial Mediation Analysis:

A serial mediation model with bootstrapping (model 6; samples = 5000; 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals) was applied to examine whether Facebook addiction and stress would serially mediate the relationship of social media mindsets with psychological well-being and life satisfaction [51].
Dimensions of social media mindsets were valence and agency (predictor variables), psychological well-being and life satisfaction (outcome variables), and Facebook addiction and stress scores (serial mediators).
Results for valence as an independent variable and psychological well-being as a dependent variable:
- Valence was not significantly related to either Facebook addiction or stress.
- Facebook addiction was positively related to stress and negatively related to psychological well-being.
- Stress was negatively related to psychological well-being.
- Valence was positively related to psychological well-being.
- The total effect of valence on psychological well-being was statistically significant.
Results for agency as an independent variable and psychological well-being as a dependent variable:
- Agency was negatively related to both Facebook addiction and stress.
- Facebook addiction was positively related to stress and negatively related to psychological well-being.
- Stress was negatively related to psychological well-being.
- Agency was not related to psychological well-being.
- The total effect of agency on psychological well-being was statistically significant.
Results for valence as an independent variable and life satisfaction as a dependent variable:
- Valence was not significantly related to either Facebook addiction or stress.
- Facebook addiction was positively related to stress, which, in turn, was negatively related to life satisfaction.
- There was no significant relationship between valence and life satisfaction.
- The total effect of valence on life satisfaction was non-significant.
Results for agency as an independent variable and life satisfaction as a dependent variable:
- Agency was negatively related to both Facebook addiction and stress.
- Facebook addiction was positively related to stress, which, in turn, was negatively related to life satisfaction.
- There was no statistically significant relationship between agency and life satisfaction.
- The total effect of agency on life satisfaction was statistically significant.
Facebook addiction and stress were serial mediators between agency and psychological well-being and life satisfaction, respectively.
Agency was negatively associated with Facebook addiction, which, in turn, was positively associated with stress, leading to a negative relationship with psychological well-being and life satisfaction.
There were no serial mediational effects between valence, psychological well-being, and life satisfaction.
Facebook addiction and stress were single mediators in the association between agency and psychological well-being.
Stress also mediated the relationship of agency with life satisfaction.
The effect-contrast method showed:
- For agency as an independent variable and psychological well-being as a dependent variable, there was no difference between Facebook addiction and stress in their mediating powers.
- For agency as an independent variable and life satisfaction as a dependent variable, stress had a more substantial mediation effect than Facebook addiction.

4. Discussion:

The study examined relationships between social media mindsets and well-being within a serial mediation model of Facebook addiction and stress in emerging adults.
The findings mostly supported the hypotheses.
This study is the first to investigate serial mediational pathways between core assumptions about the nature of social media and well-being in a sample of emerging adults.

4.1. Explaining Associations Between Social Media Mindsets and Well-Being:

Social media mindsets would be positively associated with psychological well-being and life satisfaction and negatively associated with Facebook addiction and stress; this hypothesis was partially confirmed, as only the dimension of agency of social media mindsets was associated with all of the above variables.
Individuals who believed in having greater control of their use of social media were more satisfied with life and exhibited better well-being.
Agency mindsets of social media use were positively correlated with psychological well-being and life satisfaction and negatively associated with Facebook addiction and perceived stress.
People who perceive social media use positively report higher levels of well-being, consistent with the findings of Lee and Hancock [10].
No significant associations were observed between the valence of social media and life satisfaction, Facebook addiction, and stress.
The valence of social media itself does not significantly affect life satisfaction, Facebook addiction, or stressful feelings.
Emerging adults exposed to social media from an early age tend to view it as a natural part of life [28, 52, 53].
Lack of a significant relationship between valence and stress might also stem from a dual role played by social media: it can increase perceived stress but is also used as a coping mechanism [55].
Facebook addiction would be positively associated with stress; the study confirmed this assumption, which is in line with other studies.
Individuals struggling with excessive Facebook use tend to experience more intense stress and negative emotions.
People with high levels of stress are more predisposed to addictions, including social media addiction.

4.2. Serial Mediational Effects of Facebook Addiction and Stress:

Facebook addiction and stress would serially mediate the relationship between social media mindsets and well-being; the analyses showed that Facebook addiction and stress were serial mediators only in the relationship of agency with psychological well-being and life satisfaction.
The associations between the amount of agency emerging adults feel over their use of social media and well-being are thus not directly related but are rather mediated by psychological factors related to addiction and stress.
No mediational results were found in the case of valence.
Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory [59] explains agency in the context of attitudes towards social media. Emphasizes that autonomy in decision-making is crucial for an individual’s well-being.
In the context of social media, agency refers to the sense of control over how much time a person spends on media, what they post, and how they react to others’ posts.
Self-control reduces the risk of addiction, thus helping to maintain good well-being [60].
A sense of agency reduces Facebook addiction and stress, improving psychological well-being and overall life satisfaction.
Strengthening agency in young adults may limit the development of Facebook addiction, reduce experienced stress levels, and consequently improve their well-being and overall mental state.
Low levels of self-control can contribute to the development of Facebook addiction [61].
Loss of control is also one of the symptoms indicative of addiction [44], and it simultaneously reduces life satisfaction and contributes to psychological distress [62].
Analyses did not reveal significant indirect or total effects regarding the perceived valence of social media.
Both Facebook addiction and stress are not significant factors in the relationship between perceived valence and psychological well-being or life satisfaction.
The relationship between valence and well-being is either direct or based on other mechanisms not accounted for in this study.
People compare themselves with others either “upward” or “downward” [66].
In cases where a person sees an idealized world of others on social media, they may compare themselves “downward”, which can result in a decrease in mood and life satisfaction [26].
Personality traits are moderating variables in the relationship between valence mindsets and well-being [32].
The level of neuroticism leads to different approaches to social media, which in turn may affect well-being.
Individuals who use social media for emotional reasons are less likely to experience social well-being [67].
Emotional regulation could be a more significant variable.

4.3. Limitations and Future Implications:

The study was conducted within a specific age group: emerging adulthood (18–29 years).
The study used a scale measuring Facebook addiction instead of assessing social media addiction in general.
The cross-sectional study prevents causal conclusions.

5. Conclusions:

The study demonstrated the importance of Facebook addiction and stress as significant mediating factors that influence associations between social media mindsets, psychological well-being, and life satisfaction, as well as the underlying mechanisms of social media addiction.
Emerging adults who feel they have satisfactory control over social media tend to be less addicted to Facebook, and consequently experience less stress, leading to better mental well-being and life satisfaction.
The findings may serve as a basis for designing effective psychological and social interventions in the future, focusing on stress management and addiction prevention, which will help young people maintain their mental health.
The study also emphasizes the relevance of taking into account the psychological mechanisms of addiction and stress in building educational programs aimed at constructive use of social media by young people.