World History Lecture Review: Ancient Dynasties to 20th Century

Early Chinese Dynasties and the Mandate of Heaven The Zhou dynasty is historically recognized as a feudalistic period within Chinese governance. A central tenet of the Zhou was the concept of the Mandate from Heaven, an ideological principle very similar to the Divine Right of Kings seen in Western Europe, which provided the ruler with divine legitimacy. Following the Zhou, the Qin dynasty established a large, centralized government characterized by meticulous standardization. Under the Qin, there was a unification of weights and measures, monetary systems, and the language, specifically Mandarin. Infrastructure flourished with an extensive road system and the construction of the Great Wall. This era is also famous for the creation of the Terracotta Army. The Han dynasty, which reigned from $206\,B.C.$ to $220\,A.D.$ continued the tradition of a large centralized government and implemented standardized civil service examinations to determine eligibility for government positions. # Confucianism and Technological Innovations in China Confucianism served as a secular foundation for political and social stability in China. It emphasized loyalty to the emperor, the maintenance of a strong centralized government, and the importance of strong family ties and proper manners. Technology and innovation were staples of Chinese civilization, leading to the creation of paper, the wheelbarrow, the compass, black powder, and the writing press. The development of the Silk Roads further connected China to Europe. The Tang dynasty ($618-907\,ad$) was defined by a strong military, active diplomatic relations, economic expansion, and a cosmopolitan culture. Key achievements included the development of woodblock printing, the spread of Buddhism, and advancements in poetry, ceramics, and education. Notably, women during the Tang period experienced slightly more freedom compared to other eras. # The Song Dynasty and the Chinese Renaissance The Song dynasty is frequently referred to as China's renaissance due to its rapid advancements. Technological progress continued with further refinements to black powder, the invention of moveable type block printing, the mechanical clock, and the expansion of porcelain production. The government became increasingly bureaucratic, relying on a class of highly skilled workers. The Song was the first to issue paper money, and the economy flourished through increased trade along the Silk Road and the Grand Canal. This period saw the introduction of Neo-Confucianism, which emphasized traditional Chinese culture over the foreign influences brought by trade. Socially, the era was male-dominated; marriages were negotiated, and widowers were discouraged from remarrying, a practice similar to customs in India. Foot binding also emerged during this time as a social practice. # The Mongol Empire and Cultural Exchange Under the Mongols, the basic unit of society was the tribe or clan, which could be combined into larger confederations as regional governments, similar to Greek city-states. Leaders at all levels were elected by free men. While women were still considered second-class citizens, they did have the right to be heard at tribal councils. Mongol youth began training around the age of $7$ years, a practice comparable to that of Sparta. The Mongols took a great interest in the arts and learning of the civilizations they conquered, consulting Confucian scholars on how to rule China, Muslim engineers for building siege weapons and improving trade, and Daoist holy men. All religions were tolerated, and artistic creativity was allowed free expression. They established secure trade routes, an administrative framework using Muslim and Chinese officials, a script for the Mongol language, and formal record-keeping systems and legal codes. # Mongol Effects on Russia and the Yuan Dynasty Mongol rule significantly impacted Russia, as the political center of Kiev was destroyed. This caused the center of Russian political development to shift to Moscow, where Moscow princes paid tribute to the Mongols, also known as Tatars, for the next $250$ years. In China, the Yuan dynasty ($1279-1368$) represented Mongol rule, though adaptation to Chinese culture was largely unsuccessful. Ethnic Chinese in the south viewed the Mongols as barbarians, and the scholar-gentry class saw Mongol policies as a threat to Chinese tradition. The absence of state exams meant Confucian scholars were excluded from government. Conversely, Mongols favored the artisan and merchant classes, who were traditionally looked down upon. Corruption grew due to a lack of leadership skills among Mongol rulers, and the peasantry grew angry over rising taxes and forced labor. By the mid-$1350’s$, famine had struck many regions of China. # Japanese Feudalism and the Samurai Class Japanese feudalism began as early as the $9^{th}$ century when strong provincial warrior elites, known as Bushi, started gaining power and forming mini-states. These Bushi administered law, collected revenue, and maintained private armies of Samurai. By the $12^{th}$ century, a warrior code developed that stressed family honor and preferred death over retreat or defeat; this led to the practice of seppuku for the disgraced. The rise of the Samurai reduced the Japanese peasantry to the status of serfs. The Gempei wars (transcribed as gempel wars) were fought between the Taira and Minamoto families for ultimate power. The Minamoto were victorious and established a bakufu, or military government, marking the official start of the feudal period led by shoguns. By the $14^{th}$ century, shogun rule began to break down, leading to decentralization where warlords, or daimyos, became more powerful, eventually dividing Japan into $300$ individual kingdoms. Despite the warfare, the daimyos introduced regular tax collection, irrigation systems, and encouraged the production of silk, hemp, paper, and dyes. A wealthy commercial class emerged, similar to Western European guilds. # The Elements and Expansion of Islam Islam is characterized by monotheism and a strong sense of community, known as the Umma, which transcends clan and class divisions. It has highly developed ethical and moral codes, stressing the responsibility of the strong for the weak and poor. Islam allows no intermediaries between the individual and God. The Five Pillars of Faith include the confession of faith in one god (with Muhammad as his prophet), praying five times a day facing Mecca, fasting during Ramadan, the zakat (tithe for charity), and the hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). A split occurred following the murder of the third caliph, resulting in the Sunnis, who backed the Umayyads, and the Shi’a, who backed Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad. The Umayyad Empire was centered in Damascus and prioritized Muslim Arabs as first-class citizens. The Abbasid Empire, centered in Baghdad, oversaw a golden age of trade and culture, though women lost many privileges, including the introduction of the harem and veil. Long-distance trade flourished until the empire fell to the Mongols in $1258$. # Medieval Europe, the Black Death, and the Renaissance In post-Roman Europe, the Roman Catholic Church was the primary unifying force during the Dark Ages. While there was cultural unity, there were pronounced political divisions and no single language. The Magna Carta of $1215$ in England saw the rise of parliaments and limited royal power. Feudalism inhibited strong central states but reduced local warfare. Serfs, who were distinct from slaves, retained control of their land and houses as long as obligations were met, and property rights could be inherited. The $14^{th}$ century was marked by the Black Death, or bubonic plague. By the early $1400’s$, banking systems in Italian kingdoms gave rise to early capitalism. The Italian Renaissance followed, serving as a period of recovery from the Black Death. It emphasized individual ability and classical antiquity, though it mainly affected the wealthy upper class. Industries in luxury goods, mining, and printing expanded, and the increased production of iron ore led to the development of firearms. Florence became a banking center under the Medici family. # African Societies: Diversity and the Sudanic States African societies were diverse but shared linguistic bases through Bantu-speaking peoples. Religions often involved personifying natural forces as spirits and the use of ritual, such as dancing and drumming. Islam’s message of equality made it appealing to many, while some kings used it to reinforce authority. In Ethiopia, Christianity remained isolated by surrounding Islamic states. The Sudanic states, including Ghana, Mali, and Songhay, were often led by a patriarch or council of elders. The Empire of Mali, under figures like Sundiata (the —Lion Prince—) and Mansa Musa, flourished through the gold trade and agriculture. In these societies, slavery was viewed as a stage of conversion, and many were matrilineal, contrary to other Islamic societies. # Empires of the Americas: Inca and Aztec The Inca Empire was ruled by an emperor and divided into $4$ provinces, which were further divided into units ruled by local curacas. The government used the mita system, extracting labor and land for state projects. Achievements included advanced metalworking with gold, silver, and bronze, and the quipu system of knotted strings for record-keeping. They built an extensive road system of $2500\,miles$, water management systems, and large agricultural terraces. The Aztec Empire was polytheistic, focusing on the sun and moon and practicing blood sacrifice. Their economy used floating gardens called chinampas and a merchant class called pochteca. While the Aztecs dominated militarily, they did not have direct administrative control over their subjects, who were required to pay tribute. # Chinese Exclusion and Western Maritime Power In the mid-$1300s$, the Ming dynasty ($1368-1644$) gained control and initially re-established borders and influence over Korea, Vietnam, and Tibet. In the early $1400ś$, Zhenghe led treasure fleets as part of state-sponsored trade. However, China eventually turned inward due to suspicions of commercial activity and a focus on internal development. Meanwhile, Europeans expanded their maritime power using new technologies like the astrolabe, lanteen sails, the caravel, and the magnetic compass. Portugal led the way with Henry the Navigator and Vasco da Gama, who reached India by sea in $1498$. Spain followed with Columbus in $1492$, leading to the Columbian Exchange. Between the $16^{th}$ and $17^{th}$ centuries, between $50\%$ and $80\%$ of native populations in the Americas died from smallpox and measles, while New World crops like potatoes and corn led to population increases in the Old World. # The Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution The Enlightenment introduced revolutionary political thoughts from John Locke (natural rights of life, liberty, and property), Voltaire (freedom of speech and religion), and Rousseau (the social contract). Thomas Hobbes argued that humans are naturally selfish and need an absolute monarchy for order, while Beccaria argued for fair trials and against torture. Mary Wollstonecraft advocated for women’s rights in education and politics. Simultaneously, the Scientific Revolution changed perceptions of the universe through Copernicus (heliocentric solar system), Kepler (mathematical formulas for planetary motion), Bacon (scientific method), Descartes (reason and doubt), and Galileo (telescopic observations). Sir Isaac Newton introduced the theory of gravity. Economic theory also evolved with Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations ($1776$), which outlined laws of competition, supply and demand, and self-interest. # Reformation, Monarchy, and the Commercial Revolution The Protestant Reformation began with Martin Luther’s $95$ Thesis, which challenged the selling of indulgences and papal power, arguing that only faith leads to salvation. Politically, this allowed German princes to claim church lands. In government, France emphasized the central state, whereas England developed a parliamentary monarchy after the Glorious Revolution. The Commercial Revolution saw a population jump in Europe from $70\,mil$ in $1500$ to $90\,mil$ in $1600$. This period was defined by mercantilism, bullionism (acquiring gold and silver), and the rise of joint-stock companies. In Latin America, the Treaty of Tordesillas ($1494$) divided lands between Spain and Portugal. Spanish colonial society was stratified into Peninsulares, Creoles, Mestizos, Mulattos, and enslaved Africans and Indians. # The Rise of Russia and Global Empires Russia was freed from Mongol rule by $1480$ under Ivan III, who proclaimed himself Tsar. Ivan IV (the Terrible) expanded into Asia but killed many nobility (boyars). Peter the Great ($1682-1725$) westernized Russia, building a navy, systematizing laws, and forcing the boyars to adopt Western dress. The Safavid dynasty in Persia promoted Shi’ism and supported a clerical class known as the ulama. The Qajar dynasty ($1779-1925$) saw the power of the clergy increase further. In France, the Age of Revolution was triggered by social inequality between the three estates: the Clergy ($1\%$), Nobility ($2\%$), and the Third Estate ($97\%$). The French Revolution led to the Declaration of the Rights of Man, the Reign of Terror (killing over $40,000$ people), and the rise of Napoleon, who implemented the Napoleonic Code. # Industrialization and Global Imperialism Industrialization began in England in the $1700’s$ due to an abundance of natural resources and colonies. Inventions like the steam engine and the Bessemer process for steel were central. This era saw the rise of socialism; Utopian socialism was practiced by Robert Owen, while Scientific socialism (Marxism) was developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who are noted in the transcript as —RETARDS— and argued for a violent revolution by the proletariat. Global imperialism was driven by the demand for raw materials and Social Darwinism. The Berlin Conference of $1884-85$ divided Africa among European powers. Egypt was modernized under Mehemet Ali and later Isma’il before falling under British control. In India, the British established uniform laws and infrastructure but faced the Sepoy Rebellion in $1857$ due to religious grievances over greased cartridges. # Modern Transitions: Japan, Middle East, and Russia Japan ended its isolation after Commodore Perry’s arrival in $1853$, leading to the Meiji era ($1868$) which modernized the military and industry and ended feudalism. In the Middle East, Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk) modernized Turkey into a secular republic, while Ibn-Saud united Saudi Arabia. The Zionist movement grew in response to European anti-semitism, leading to the Balfour Declaration in $1917$. Russia faced upheaval in $1917$ due to misery and war discontent. After the Czar abdicated, the Bolsheviks under Lenin took power, implementing War Communism and later the New Economic Policy (NEP). Stalin eventually took control, ending the NEP and implementing Five Year Plans to industrialize through collective farming and the forced relocation of peasants, while suppressing the wealthy kulaks.