Comprehensive Study Notes on Colonial History in Sri Lanka

Arrival and influence of the Dutch in Sri Lanka

• Arrival in Asia: During the $16^{\text{th}}$ century, the Dutch conducted trade by purchasing Asian commodities, including spices, from the Portuguese at the port of Lisbon and selling them across Europe.

• Political and Religious Context: Holland was under Spanish rule at the time. The Spanish were Roman Catholics, while the Dutch were followers of the Reformed Church. This religious difference led to a Dutch struggle for independence against Spain.

• The Lisbon Ban: King Philip II of Spain, who also became the King of Portugal by inheritance, banned the Dutch from the port of Lisbon to weaken their trade. This forced the Dutch to travel directly to Asia to source goods.

• The Information Monopoly: For nearly a century, the Portuguese successfully kept the sea routes to Asia a secret from other Europeans, refusing to allow any Dutch, English, or French nationals to travel on their ships unless they were exceptionally trusted individuals.

• Formation of the VOC ($1602$): Initially, several small Dutch companies competed for Asian trade, which proved inefficient and lacked legal authority. In $1602$, the Dutch ruler combined these into the United East India Company (Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC).

• The Royal Charter: The VOC was granted a Royal Charter by the Dutch government, providing them with powers to:

  • Conduct trade in Asia on behalf of the Dutch government.

  • Conquer territories.

  • Build fortresses.

  • Appoint governors.

  • Administer conquered regions.

Interaction Between the Dutch and the Kandyan Kingdom

• Early Contact ($1602$): Admiral Joris van Spilbergen arrived in Batticaloa in $1602$ with three ships. He met King Vimaladharmasuriya I in July $1602$. The King, wanting to expel the Portuguese, sought Dutch assistance.

• Subsequent Envoys: Following Spilbergen, Sebald de Weert led a delegation to Kandy. Despite a warm initial reception, a conflict arose when De Weert behaved disrespectfully toward the King, resulting in De Weert's death and a temporary halt to Dutch-Kandyan cooperation.

• King Rajasinghe II and the Dutch Treaty ($1638$): King Rajasinghe II sought a powerful naval ally to expel the Portuguese. He negotiated with Dutch representatives in Batavia (Jakarta), offering a monopoly on the cinnamon trade and a port on the east coast in exchange for military help.

• The Siege of Batticaloa ($1638$): In May $1638$, the King’s army and the Dutch successfully captured the Portuguese fort at Batticaloa. Following this victory, the Treaty of $1638$ was signed.

• Terms of the $1638$ Treaty:

  • The Dutch agreed to help the King expel the Portuguese from the island.

  • The King agreed to reimburse the Dutch for war expenses using commodities like cinnamon, pepper, and beeswax.

  • The Dutch were granted a monopoly on the purchase of all Kandyan trade goods except elephants.

  • Dutch troops were to be stationed in captured Portuguese forts only if the King requested it.

The Conflict Over the Forts and the Expulsion of the Portuguese

• The Conflict of Interest: Between $1638$ and $1658$, the combined forces captured Trincomalee, Negombo, Galle, Kalutara, Colombo, Mannar, and Jaffna. However, the Dutch refused to hand these over to the King, claiming war debts were unpaid.

• Dutch Deception: The Dutch ignored the clause in the treaty regarding the King's consent for troop placement. They maintained garrisons in Negombo and Galle because these were central to the cinnamon trade.

• The Fall of Colombo ($1656$): Under General Gerard Hulft, the Dutch besieged Colombo. Despite King Rajasinghe II providing a large army, the Dutch accepted the keys to the fort from the Portuguese and kept them for themselves, violating the treaty.

• The End of Portuguese Rule ($1658$): With the capture of Mannar, Jaffna, and Kalpitiya in $1658$, Portuguese rule in the coastal regions ended. The Dutch assumed control of these areas, though King Rajasinghe II attempted to reclaim land by merging some former Portuguese territories into the Kandyan Kingdom.

Dutch Administrative Structure

• Supreme Governance: The highest decision-making body was the Board of Directors (Heeren XVII) in Holland. To manage the vast distances, a Governor General was appointed in Batavia ($1609$) to oversee Asian territories.

• Local Governance in Sri Lanka: A Dutch Governor was appointed locally, assisted by a council of high-ranking Dutch officials. Despite being subordinates to Batavia, Sri Lankan Governors often acted independently due to communication delays.

• Administrative Divisions (Commandaries):

  • Colombo Commandary: Administered by the Governor; included Colombo, Kalutara, Negombo, Hanwella, Anguruwatotota, and Malwana.

  • Galle Commandary: Administered by a Commander; covered the coastal region from the Bentara River to Batticaloa.

  • Jaffna Commandary: Administered by a Commander; spanned the coast from north of Puttalam to Jaffna and down to Batticaloa.

• Civil and Military hierarchy:

  • Dissawe: A Dutch official responsible for civil administration, tax collection, and land grants at the provincial level.

  • Opperhooft: Senior Merchant involved in commercial interests.

  • Hoofdtman: Official in charge of land and revenue.

  • Native Officials: Lower administrative posts used traditional titles like Mudaliyar, Koralas, Vidane, and Gam-Mula-Dhani.

The Dutch Judicial System

• Raad van Justitie (High Court): Located in the three Commandaries, headed by a Hoofdt Administrateur; primarily dealt with criminal cases.

• Civil Raad (Civil Court): Established in Colombo, Galle, and Jaffna to handle civil disputes involving sums less than $120$ Rix Dollars and marriage-related cases.

• Land Raad (Land Court): Located in Colombo, Galle, Jaffna, Trincomalee, Batticaloa, and Matara. Chaired by the Dissawe, it provided an accessible and affordable system for native land disputes.

• Local Customary Law: In Jaffna, the Dutch codified traditional laws (Thesavalamai) for use in legal proceedings.

• Roman-Dutch Law: The Dutch introduced a refined version of Roman-Dutch Law, which remains a component of Sri Lanka's modern legal system.

Dutch Economic Policies and Agriculture

• Cinnamon Monopoly: The Dutch prioritized cinnamon. They maintained the "Maha Badda" (Cinnamon Department) and utilized the traditional Rajakariya labor system. Specific quotas were enforced, requiring adult peelers to provide set amounts of cinnamon to the VOC for free annually.

• Thombo Records: To maximize revenue, the Dutch refined Portuguese records into three types of "Thombos":

  • Family Thombo: Listed details of families in each village.

  • Land Thombo: Detailed family land holdings, crop types, and taxes owed to the company.

  • School Thombo: Recorded children's birth dates, school attendance, and migration patterns.

• Economic Diversification: To reduce import costs for rice and textiles, the Dutch initiated projects such as:

  • Reclaiming the Muthurajawela marshes for cultivation.

  • Repairing the Yodha Wewa and Kantale tanks to increase rice production.

  • Introducing crops like sugarcane, coffee, mulberry, and indigo.

  • Developing industries like cloth weaving, dyeing, and brick/tile making.

  • Constructing canals, such as the Hamilton Canal, for goods transport.

Social and Cultural Impact of Dutch Rule

• Religion: The Dutch promoted the Reformed Protestant faith. They built churches in major towns and Jaffna (Achchuveli and Manipay). They brought ministers from Holland to convert locals.

• Education: Schools were established as centers for religious propagation. Attendance was mandatory, and teaching was often in the mother tongue. Subjects included prayer, language, music, and theology. They established a Seminary in Colombo for higher Dutch education.

• Printing Press ($1739$): The Dutch introduced the first printing press to Sri Lanka, primarily to distribute Biblical texts.

• Architecture: Houses featured high roofs, large windows, pillars, and broad verandas (Stoep). Traditional terms like "Solariya" (upstairs) and "Isthoppuwa" (veranda) were introduced.

• Food and Language: The Dutch introduced foods like cake, pickles (Achcharu), and Kokis. Many Dutch words entered the Sinhala and Tamil languages, particularly those related to the house (e.g., Almariah/Cupboard, Janela/Window, Kamara/Room) and legal/administrative terms (e.g., Notary, Fiscal, Auction).

• The Burgher Community: A distinct ethnic group, the Burghers, emerged from European settlers who remained in the country.

British Interest and the Conquest of the Coastal Lands

• The Value of Sri Lanka: The British became interested in the island in the late $18^{\text{th}}$ century due to its strategic position in the Indian Ocean, the natural safety of the Trincomalee harbor (protecting ships from cyclones), and the lucrative spice and elephant trades.

• Diplomatic Missions:

  • John Pybus ($1762$) met King Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe.

  • Hugh Boyd ($1782$) met King Rajasinghe.

  • Robert Andrews ($1795$) met King Rajasinghe.

• The Kew Letters ($1795$): During the French Revolution, the French occupied Holland. The Dutch King, William V, fled to Britain and wrote the "Kew Letters," instructing Dutch governors to allow British troops into their forts to prevent French capture.

• Military Conflict: Governor Van Angelbeek in Colombo refused the Kew Letter instructions. This led the British to attack and capture Fort Frederick in Trincomalee on August $26$, $1795$. By February $1796$, the British had seized all Dutch forts, ending Dutch rule.

Early British Rule and the 1815 Treaty

• 1797 Rebellion: Early British administration via the Madras-based East India Company was harsh. They introduced new taxes (Coconut, Salt, Fish, Tobacco) collected by Indian officials called "Aumildars." This led to a massive revolt in $1797$.

• Meuron Commission: A commission under Colonel Meuron was established to investigate the rebellion, resulting in administrative reforms and the separation of trade and civil governance.

• Dual Control and Crown Status: From $1798$ to $1802$, governance was shared between the East India Company and the British Crown. In $1802$, the coastal regions were officially declared a British Crown Colony.

• Conquest of Kandy ($1815$): Internal conflicts in Kandy aided the British. Chieftains like Ehelepola revolted against King Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe’s cruelty. British forces led by Robert Brownrigg captured the King in $1815$. He was exiled to Vellore, India, where he died of a heart ailment in $1816$.

• Kandyan Convention ($1815$): Signed on March $2$, $1815$, between Robert Brownrigg (for King George III) and the Kandyan chieftains. Key clauses included:

  • Deposition of the King and exclusion of his relatives from the throne.

  • Preservation of the rights and privileges of traditional chieftains.

  • Protection of Buddhism and Buddha Sasana.

  • Abolition of torture and the requirement of the Governor's signature for death sentences.

The 1818 and 1848 Independence Struggles

• The 1818 Rebellion: Triggered by a feeling of being "kingless," the perceived threat to Buddhism, and the loss of chieftain status. The immediate cause was the appointment of a Muslim official (Hajji Marikar) in Wellassa. Leaders included Keppetipola Disave and Madugalle. The British suppressed it via a "scorched earth" policy, burning crops and homes.

• The 1848 Rebellion: A popular uprising led by Puran Appu and Gongalegoda Banda. Unlike the $1818$ rebellion led by elites, this was a commoner's struggle. Causes included:

  • The $1833$ Colebrooke reforms which damaged the village economy.

  • The Waste Lands Ordinance of $1840$, which seized communal lands for plantations.

  • New taxes introduced by Lord Torrington (Dog, Gun, Cart, Road, Stamp, and Shop taxes).

  • Suppression resulted in the execution of Puran Appu and the recall of Governor Torrington to England.

Plantation Economy and Revivals

• Plantation Economy: Coffee was the first major crop, starting with George Bird in $1822$. After a fungal disease (Hemileia vastatrix) destroyed coffee in $1869$, tea became the primary crop (James Taylor, $1873$). Rubber and commercial coconut production followed.

• Buddhist Revival: Led by Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thero and Migettuwatte Gunananda Thero. The Panadura Debate ($1873$) gained international fame, bringing Henry Steel Olcott to the island. They founded Buddhist schools like Ananda, Dharmaraja, and Mahinda.

• National Figures: Anagarika Dharmapala promoted national identity and cultural preservation. Arumuga Navalar led the Hindu revival in Jaffna, while Siddi Lebbe and T.B. Jayah spearheaded Islamic religious and educational reforms.