Modernization of Europe

Kingship in the Middle Ages

• Medieval political theorist saw kings as deriving power from god, but shared political power with feudal lords,clergy, etc 

• Central authority tempered

• People saw themselves as a member of an estate-clergy, aristocracy, commoners-rather than subjects or citizens of a state  

16th century religious wars in France

• France torn apart by conflict between catholics and protestants 

• Some french writers began to argue only a strong central government can prevent anarchy, resistance to the monarchy is never legitimate  

Basics of absolutist theory

• There must be only one sovereign in every state (can be a body more than one person)

• The sovereign holds all legitimate power and should never be actively resisted 

• If the sovereign commands a contravention of god's law, disobey, but accept punishment 

Distinction between absolutism and divine right of kings

• Particular version of absolutist theory

• Divine right theorist insisted that a ruler's power was from god alone

• Mot divine right theorist thought monarchy was the best form of government, but conceded that god also upheld other forms of government

Sovereignty

• Ultimate supreme power in any state 

• Freedom from external control

• Formal acknowledgment by other states

Jean Bodin (1530-1596)

• Published six books of the commonwealth in 1576

• Argued sovereignty was absolute and indivisible 

• Argued the sovereign could not be limited by human law 

Jacques-Benigne Bossuet

• Prominent French bishop, theologian, and orator

• Played a significant role in the religious and political life of France during Louis XIV

• Strong proponent of political absolutism and divine rights of kings

Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642)

• Chief minister to Louis XIII

• Morality rested on one absolute principle: reason of state

• Sought to bring disruptive and anti monarchy elements within French society under the kings control 

Raison d’état

• Reason of state is a principle of political philosophy justifying actions taken by the state to protect self interest 

• Suggest that the survival and stability of the state are paramount 

• Sometimes extraordinary measures are necessary to achieve goals 

Cardinal Mazarin(1602-1661)

• Took charge during the minority of Louis XIV and continued Richelieu policies

• Heavy handed actions produced a rebellious reaction, the Fronde, a series of street riots

Louis XIV (1638-1715)

• Assumed responsibility for governing in 1661 

• “Princes of the blood” enjoyed great social prestige but declining political power 

• Culmination of the process of increasing monarchical power 

Palace of Versailles

• Built by Louis XIII and expanded by Louis XIV later on

• Moved french court and government to Versailles 

• Spent lots of money building the palace 

Natural rights

• Natural rights are fundamental rights that are considered inherent to all human beings

• Natural rights cannot be surrendered or transferred

• They apply to all people, everywhere

• Common examples include the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness

Source of authority for the natural law school

• True source of political authority is the consent of the people 

• Human reason is a crucial source of authority for natural law

• Many natural law theorists, particularly those influenced by religious traditions, believe that natural law is given by a divine being

Social contract

• This is not synonymous with egalitarianism 

• Thomas Hobbes

• Foundational concept in political philosophy that explores the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual

Thomas Hobbes

• Influential English philosopher best known for his work in political philosophy

• Hobbes is known for his advocacy of absolute sovereignty as the only way to prevent societal collapse and maintain peace

• Laid the groundwork for modern political thought and influenced later philosophers like John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Samuel von Pufendorf (1632-1694)

• Natural state of man

• Explanation of why people would give up their natural liberty and equality and submit to strong governance 

John Locke (1632-1704)

• View of human nature and reason

• Scientific revolution

• Postulated that each individual is a tabula rasa or blank slate at birth

•  All knowledge is sensory 

• Denied inherited abilities and rejected the idea that humanity is stained by original sin

• Asserted the dignity of the individual in contending that every person has the right to life, liberty, and property

• Monarchies are based on a social contract between rulers and the ruled 

• Propeneet of educational reform, freedom of the press, religious toleration, and separation of political power 

Distinction between the philosophes and earlier scholars

• Philosophers emphasized the use of reason, critical thinking, and empirical evidence to understand and improve the world

• Challenged traditional religious and political authorities, advocating for secularism and the separation of church and state

• Renaissance scholars like Erasmus emphasized the study of classical texts and human potential, but their work was still deeply intertwined with religious themes

• Philosophes relied more on scientific methods and empirical evidence, while earlier scholars often integrated religious and classical sources

Stages of the Enlightenment 

• Early Enlightenment (Late 17th Century)

• High Enlightenment (Mid 18th Century)

• Late Enlightenment (Late 18th Century)

General ideas of the Enlightenment

• Reason and rationality 

• Individualism 

• Skepticism and authority 

• Progress and optimism 

• Secularism 

• Social contract 

Intellectual influences upon the Enlightenment

• Protestant Reformation

• John Locke

• Thomas Hobbes

• Humanist Scholars

• Isaac Newton

Scientific Revolution

• New Methods of Inquiry

• Major Discoveries

• Shift in Worldview

• Separation of Science and Philosophy

• Influence on the Enlightenment

Montesquieu (1689-1755)

• Persian letters (1721)

• The spirit of of the laws (1748)

Voltaire (1649-1778)

• Philosophical dictionary (1764)

• Candide (1759)

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

• Encyclopedia: 60,000 articles, 2,885 illustrations, 28 volumes 

• Philosophical writings had a profound impact on the intellectual landscape of the Enlightenment

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

• Discourse on the arts and sciences (1762) 

• Emile (1762)

• The social contract (1762)

David Hume

• Prominent Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, known for his influential contributions to empiricism, skepticism, and naturalism

• Lasting impact on philosophy, particularly in the areas of epistemology, ethics, and the philosophy of mind

• His work influenced later philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and the development of modern empiricism and skepticism

Condorcet

• French philosopher, mathematician, and political scientist during the Enlightenment

• Strong advocate for human rights, including women’s rights and the abolition of slavery

• He championed public education as a means to achieve social progress and equality

• Condorcet’s ideas on progress, education, and human rights have had a lasting impact on modern political and social thought

Cesare Beccaria

• Influential Italian criminologist, philosopher, and economist, best known for his pioneering work in the field of criminal justice reform

• Promoted the idea that laws should be clear, public, and designed to prevent crime rather than simply punish it

• Had a lasting impact on the field of criminal justice and continue to be relevant in discussions about legal reform and human rights

Factors allowing for Enlightenment ideas to take root

• Scientific revolution

• Printing press 

• Renaissance humanism 

• Protestant Reformation’

• Political and Economical changes 

Social structure of France

• Ancien Regime dividing society into three estates 

• Clergy: The First Estate, comprising religious leaders.

• Nobility: The Second Estate, consisting of the aristocracy

• Commoners: The Third Estate, which included everyone else, from peasants to bourgeoisie

First Estate-Roman Catholic Church 

• Distinction between upper and lower clergy 

• Owned 10-15% of the land in France and paid no taxes 

• Collected the tithe 

Second Estate-The Nobility

• Nobility of the sword 

• Nobility of the robe

• Together numbered 350,000-400,000 people who owned 25-30% of the land 

• Enjoyed many tax exemptions 

Third Estate-Abbe Sieyes 

• Everyone else 

• Consisted of about 25 million people 

• Bourgesiouse, peasantry, (numbered about 21 million) and urban artisans 

Plight of the peasantry

• Heavy taxation 

• Owed their lord a labor obligation

• Rent always increasing as did the duties of goods

• Antiquated methods of agriculture 

• Poor harvest of 1788 and 1789 

Urban poor

• Lived in poverty

• By 1789, wages increased by 22% while cost of living increased by 66% 

Governance of France

• Royal absolutism-Estates general had not met since 1614 

• Very large and corrupt bureaucracy

• No uniform legal system 

Problems with the existing political system

• Rigid social hierarchy 

• Economic challenges 

• Political stagnation

• Emergence of enlightenment ideas

Early moves toward Revolution

• Financial crisis 

• Appointment of Jacques Necker as finance minister 

• Revival of the estates General 

Louis XVI

• Last king of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution

• Attempted to implement financial and administrative reforms to address France’s mounting debt and economic troubles

•  Louis XVI’s indecisiveness and inability to effectively address the crisis weakened his position

• Executed by guillotine on January 21, 1793

Estates General

• Legislative and consultative assembly in pre-revolutionary France, representing the three estates of the realm

• Primarily called to address financial and political crises, allowing the king to consult with representatives from each estate

• Meeting quickly became contentious, as the Third Estate demanded more representation and voting power

Structure

• First estate 

• Second estate

• Third estate 

Voting system

• Each estate had 300 members but voting was done by order

• Problems with the voting system 

Concessions granted by the king to the Third Estate

• Doubling of the third 

• Procedures for voting left to the estates general 

Creation of the National Assembly

• When their demands were not met, they began to meet separately

• June 17, 1789, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly, asserting that they represented the majority of the French people

• After being locked out of their usual meeting place, the members of the National Assembly gathered in a nearby indoor tennis court

Cahiers

• Refers to notebooks or exercise books

• The Cahiers de Doléances were lists of grievances and demands compiled by the three estates (clergy, nobility, and commoners) in France in 1789

• Documents were created in preparation for the meeting of the Estates-General, where representatives from each estate would present their concerns and suggestions for reform to King Louis XVI

• Included a wide range of issues, such as demands for tax reforms, calls for greater political representation, and complaints about social inequalities

Sans-culottes

• Radical and militant group of common people in late 18th-century France who played a significant role in the French Revolution

• Primarily urban laborers, artisans, and small shopkeepers

• Advocated for social and economic equality, popular democracy, and the abolition of the monarchy

• They played a significant role during the Reign of Terror, supporting the Jacobins and leaders like Maximilien Robespierre

Storming of the Bastille

• July 14, 1789, was a pivotal event in the French Revolution

• The Bastille was a medieval fortress and prison in Paris, symbolizing royal authority and oppression

• A crowd of Parisians, fearing that King Louis XVI was planning to arrest members of the National Assembly, stormed the Bastille

• Although the Bastille held only seven prisoners at the time, its fall was seen as a triumph over tyranny and became a symbol of the revolution

End of the Ancien Regime

• Saint Bartholomew of privilege (4 August)

• Declaration of the Rights of Man (26 August)

• October days 

“Saint Bartholomew of privilege”

• This term metaphorically references the dramatic and sweeping changes that occurred, similar to the violence of the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in 1572,

• The Assembly decreed the abolition of feudal rights, tithes, and privileges, aiming to pacify the peasantry and address widespread social unrest

• The voluntary renunciation of privileges by the nobility and clergy was seen as a powerful gesture of unity and commitment to the revolutionary cause

Declaration of the Rights of Man

• Fundamental document from the French Revolution, adopted by the National Constituent Assembly on August 26, 1789

• Outlines the natural and inalienable rights of individuals and serves as a cornerstone for modern human rights

• Inspired by Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Montesquieu

New political culture

• End of absolute monarchy 

• Rise of new political ideologies such as liberalism 

• Popular sovereignty and democracy 

• Social and economic reforms 

First National Festival of Federation

• Grand celebration held on July 14, 1790, to commemorate the first anniversary of the Storming of the Bastille and to honor the achievements of the French Revolution

• This event symbolized national unity and the new constitutional monarchy in France

• Held at the Champ de Mars in Paris, the festival featured a massive gathering with over 300,000 people in attendance

Constitutional Monarchy

• Constitution of 1791 

• Legislative assembly 

• Distinction between passive and active citizens 

• King of the French

• First National Festival of the Federation (14 July 1790) 

Constitution of 1791

• First written constitution in France, created during the French Revolution

• Marked a significant shift from absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy, where the king’s powers were limited by law and sovereignty resided in the Legislative Assembly

• Constitution of 1791 faced challenges and lasted less than a year, as political tensions and conflicts continued to escalate

Measures of the Constituent Assembly

• New system of local government 

• Legal tribunals 

• Free trade 

• Establishment of the assignat 

• Reform of the church 

Civil Constitution of the Clergy/reforms to the Catholic Church in France

• Assembly voted in 1789 to expropriate the church's accumulated property and sell it to private owners 

• Assembly intended to have the civil government take over many functions of the church like education, government inherits the resources the church had to perform tasks 

• Underpaid parish priest now receive salaries from the state 

• Granting of full civil and political rights to religious minorities 

• Redrew boundaries of dioceses to correspond to the boundaries of the departments it had established

• Decision to have local voters elect priest and bishops

• Oath required of all clergy 

Assignat

• Form of paper money used in France during the French Revolution, from 1789 to 1796

• Made legal tender, meaning they could be used for everyday transactions

• Over-issuance of assignats led to severe inflation and depreciation of their value

• Played a crucial role in the revolutionary economy but ultimately contributed to financial instability due to their rapid devaluation

Flight to Varennes

• On the night of June 20-21, 1791, King Louis XVI, Queen Marie Antoinette, and their immediate family attempted to escape from Paris to Montmédy, a royalist stronghold

• Escape plan failed due to a series of delays and missteps

•  The royal family was recognized and arrested in the small town of Varennes-en-Argonne

Growth of Republicanism and Overthrow of the Monarchy

• Economic deterioration

• Outbreak of war 

• Divisions within the legislative assembly 

• Jacobins and Girondins 

• Jacobin coup d’etat (10 August 1792)

• Proclamation of a republic (21 September 1792) 

Causes of the growth of Republicanism

• Disillusionment with the monarchy 

• Economic hardships 

• Enlightenment ideas 

• Military successes 

• Radicalization of the Revolution 

Jacobins

• Prominent political group during the French Revolution, known for their radical and revolutionary ideas

• Advocated for republicanism, the abolition of the monarchy, and the establishment of a democratic government

• Under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre, the Jacobins implemented the Reign of Terror

• The Jacobins had significant influence in the National Convention and were instrumental in the fall of the monarchy

Girondins

• Political faction during the French Revolution

• Republicans who initially supported the end of the monarchy but later resisted the more radical measures of the revolution

• Advocated for a decentralized government and were wary of the increasing power of the Parisian radicals

• Many Girondin leaders were arrested and executed during the Reign of Terror

Execution of “Citizen Louis Capet”

•  After being dethroned and put on trial for high treason, Louis XVI was convicted by the National Convention and concluded with a near-unanimous vote for his execution

• His death marked the end of the monarchy and was seen as a significant step towards the establishment of the French Republic

• This event had profound implications, both within France and internationally, symbolizing the dramatic shift from monarchy to republicanism

Execution of the “Widow Capet”

• Following the execution of her husband, King Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette was imprisoned and subjected to a trial by the Revolutionary Tribunal

• She was charged with high treason, depletion of the national treasury, and conspiracy against the security of the state

•  Her execution marked the end of the monarchy’s influence and was a significant moment in the French Revolution

Popular Revolution

• French army held its ground for the first time and now taking the offensive

• New tone represented by: Edict of Fraternity, Declaration of French natural frontiers, Escalation of the war

• Concentration of power 

• Committee of public safety and general security 

• Elimination of the Girondins (2 June 1793)

Committees of Public Safety and General Security

• Two crucial bodies during the French Revolution, particularly during the Reign of Terror

• Gained near-dictatorial control over France, overseeing the executive government and directing the war effort

• Acted as a police agency, supervising local police committees, investigating reports of treason, and referring suspects to the Revolutionary Tribunal

• Both committees were instrumental in the radical phase of the revolution, enforcing revolutionary laws and maintaining order through often brutal means

Facets of the transition towards dictatorship

• France threatened not only by foreign invasion but by internal revolt

• Royalist and clerical-led peasant uprisings especially in BRittany and La Vendee

• Girondin federalist revolts

• Economic crisis 

• Food shortages

• Ideological commitment 

Maximilien Robespierre

• Key figure in the French Revolution, known for his radical views and leadership during the Reign of Terror

•  Robespierre became a prominent member of the Jacobins and later the Committee of Public Safety, where he played a crucial role in the revolutionary government

•  He believed that terror was necessary to defend the revolution and achieve its goals

•  On July 27, 1794, he was arrested and executed by guillotine the following day

Three aspects of the Reign of Terror

• Economic controls

• Law of Maximum 

• Food rationing

• Dechristianization: Cult of the supreme being

• Purging of the enemies of the people 

Economic controls (Law of Maximum etc.)

• During the French Revolution, the revolutionary government implemented several economic controls to address the severe economic crisis and ensure the supply of essential goods

• Goal was to curb inflation, prevent price gouging, and ensure that food and other necessities remained affordable for the general population

• Merchants were required to display their maximum prices publicly, and violations could result in severe penalties

• Measures were part of the broader efforts by the Committee of Public Safety to stabilize the economy and maintain public order during a tumultuous period

Dechristianization (Cult of the Supreme Being)

• Revolutionary government undertook a series of measures known as dechristianization to reduce the influence of the Catholic Church and promote secularism

• Confiscation of church property, the closure of religious institutions, and the persecution of clergy

• The Cult of the Supreme Being emphasized the worship of a supreme deity and the values of virtue and morality

• Abolition of the Christian Calendar: The revolutionary government replaced the Christian calendar with the French Republican Calendar, which began from the date of the Revolution

Purging of the enemies of the people

• Reign of Terror (September 1793 - July 1794). This period was marked by extreme measures taken by the revolutionary government to eliminate perceived threats to the revolution

• Laws such as the Law of Suspects allowed for the arrest of individuals suspected of counter-revolutionary activities

• Thousands of people, including nobles, clergy, and ordinary citizens, were executed by guillotine

• The Reign of Terror aimed to protect the revolution but also led to widespread fear and the loss of many lives

Coup of Thermidor

• Increasingly trapped between the terrorists and moderates 

• Easing of the immediate threat to security 

• Easing of the economic crisis 

Execution of Robespierre

• Marked the end of the Reign of Terror and a significant turning point in the French Revolution

• This arrest followed a speech by Robespierre in which he hinted at the existence of internal enemies without naming them, causing fear among the deputies

• Robespierre’s fall led to the Thermidorian Reaction, a period of more moderate policies and the dismantling of the mechanisms of the Terror

Factors in ending the terror

• Excessive violence 

• Political rivalries 

• Economic hardships 

• Military successes 

• Fall of Robespierre 

Who were the “Thermidorians”?

• Group of moderate revolutionaries who played a key role in the Thermidorian Reaction, which led to the fall of Maximilien Robespierre and the end of the Reign of Terror

• The Thermidorians dismantled the mechanisms of the Terror, including the Committee of Public Safety’s extensive powers

• They shifted the revolution towards more moderate policies, moving away from the radicalism of the Jacobins

• The Thermidorians initiated reforms that led to the establishment of the Directory, a more conservative government that ruled France until the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

Constitution of 1795

• Electorate reduced again by means of a property qualification

• Two chambered legislature 

• Executive power in the hands of a five man directory

• Annual elections of a third of the legislatures members and one of the directors 

Instability of the political system after the overthrow of Robespierre

• War of annexations and conquest

• Terror in reverse 

• Deteriorating economic situation 

• Collapse of the assignat 

• Near famine conditions in some regions in 1795

Coup of Brumaire

• Growing tendency to rely upon army to maintain order

• Fear of jacobin revolt to search for a pliable military man 

• Sieyes, Roger-Ducos, and barras select Napoleon 

Reasons for the coup

• Political instability 

• Military failures and economic hardships 

• Popular support for Napoleon 

• Manipulation of the legislature 

Napoleon Bonaparte

• French military leader and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and its subsequent wars

• Napoleon gained national recognition with his victories in Italy and Egypt

• In 1799, he orchestrated a coup that overthrew the Directory, establishing the Consulate with himself as First Consul

• In 1804, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor, initiating a series of reforms that modernized France

Napoleon’s cultivation of image

• Arts and engravings

• Control of the press

• Public ceremonies and festivals 

• Theatricality and Literature

Napoleon’s formal rise to power (also know context for each step)

• Early military career

• Rise during the french revolution 

• Italian campaign 

• Egyptian campaign 

• Coup of Brumaire 

• Consolidation of power as first consul and consul for life

• Becoming emperor of France 

First Consul

• Got Sieyes to agree to one of the consuls being in office for four years and having power over others 

• Appointment of officials 

• Initiation of legislation 

• Used these powers to: Restructure the policy, departmental, local government and criminal courts system 

• Could control these to his interest 

Consul for Life

• Personal standing enhanced by military victories 

• With the rejoicing at the treaty of Amiens in the background, converted his office into ife life tenure 

• Amendment of the constitution to give himself dictatorial powers over the electoral and legislative systems 

• Plebiscite ratified the extension of his term of office 

Emperor

• War with Britain broke out again in 1803 and a plot by George Caboudal excuse to purge Jacobins 

• Senate offered Napoleon statues of hereditary emperor in the interest of national stability 

Imperial Court

• Coronation at Notre Dame in the presence of Pope Pius VII

• Order of the Legion of Honor 

Order of the Legion of Honor

•  Highest and most prestigious French order of merit, both military and civil established by Napoleon Bonaparte

• The order is divided into five classes, each representing a different level of distinction

• Chevalier, Officier, Commandeur, Grand officier, Grand-croix

Napoleon’s Domestic Reforms

• Napoleonic code 

• Educational reforms 

• Economic reforms 

• Religious reforms 

• Administrative reforms 

Economic Management

• Reform of tax system 

• Brought in almost 7 million Francs a year

• Money came for  taxes on income and a series of levies on goods such as win, tobacco, and salt

• Creation of the bank of France 

• Exclusive right to issue paper money

• Labor control

• Food supply 

• Road, canal, and harbor projects

Examples of economic reforms

• Tax system reform 

• Bank of France 

• Infrastructure development 

• Promotion of industry and commerce 

Code Napoleon

• Great civil code which replaced 360 local codes of the Ancien Regime 

• 2,281 articles broken into 3 sections

• Combined the egalitarianism of the revolution and the authoritarian tendencies of Napoleon 

Examples of what is contained in Code Napoleon

• Equality before the law 

• Property rights 

• Civil liberties 

• Family law 

Education

• No reform to the education of the poor and women

• Created a system of lycees (selective secondary schools) 

• Designed to train the future leaders and administrators of France

• Third of the places were reserved for the sons of officers and civil servants 

Examples

• Established lycées, which were secondary schools designed to prepare students for higher education and careers in public service and the military

• Created the University of France, a centralized institution that oversaw all levels of education in the country

• Promoted a merit-based system in education, where students were rewarded based on their abilities and achievements rather than their social status or family background

• Implemented a standardized curriculum across all educational institutions, ensuring consistency in the subjects taught and the quality of education provided

Concordat of 1801

• Catholic faith was recognized as the religion of the great majority of the population

• Clergy were to be paid as state officials 

• Purchasers of former church lands were guaranteed possession 

Terms

• Recognition of Catholicism

• Appointment of Bishops

• Clergy Salaries

• Church Property

• Seminaries: The establishment of seminaries was permitted, allowing the Church to train new priests

The Organic Laws

• Napoleon didn't want to be seen as restoring Roman Catholicism

• Granted a charter of protestant liberties

• Confirmation of the subjugation of the church to the secular power of france  

Evaluation of Napoleon’s Domestic Policies

• Consolidation of the achievements and developments of the revolution 

• Absence of social reforms 

• Domestic policies were a mix of progressive reforms and authoritarian control

Battle of Trafalgar

• Pivotal naval engagement fought on October 21, 1805, during the Napoleonic Wars

• British fleet achieved a decisive victory, destroying or capturing 22 of the 33 Franco-Spanish ships without losing a single vessel

• Victory established British naval supremacy for the remainder of the Napoleonic Wars

• Thwarted Napoleon's plans to invade Britain and ensured British control of the seas, which was crucial for maintaining the blockade of France and supporting British military operations 

Lord Nelson

• Renowned British naval commander known for his inspirational leadership and strategic brilliance during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars

• Achieved a decisive victory over the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile

• Mortally wounded during the battle and died aboard his flagship

• Celebrated as one of the greatest naval commanders in history

Creation of the Third Coalition

• Anglo-Russian convention (April 1803)

• Agreement with Austria (August 1805)

Anglo-Russian Convention

• Diplomatic and military interactions between the United Kingdom and the Russian Empire

• After Napoleon's victory at the Battle of Friedland, Tsar Alexander I of Russia signed the Treaty of Tilsit with Napoleon

• Treaty ended hostilities between France and Russia and required Russia to cease trade with Britain, aligning with Napoleon's Continental System

Agreement with Austria

• Following Austria's defeat at the Battle of Wagram, the Treaty of Schönbrunn was signed on October 14, 1809

• Austria ceded significant territories, including Salzburg to Bavaria and parts of the Adriatic coast to France

• Austria recognized Napoleon's previous conquests and agreed to reduce its army size

Campaign of 1805

• Austrian army caught and defeated at Ulm in Bavaria 

• Crushing defeat of the Austro-Russian forces at Austerlitz (December 2nd 1805)

Treaty of Pressburg

• Austria surrendered Venetia and the Tyrol and recognized Baden, Bavaria, and Wurtemberg as independent kingdoms 

Campaign of 1806-7

• Prussian forces defeated at Jena and Auerstadt

• Russian army defeated at Eyau and Friedland 

Pacification of Tilsit (1807)

• Agreement between Napoleon and the tsar dividing Europe into two spheres of influence

• Russia lost third of its territories and Polish possessions were reconstituted as the Grand Duchy of Warsaw 

The Grand Empire

• Refers to the extensive empire established by Napoleon Bonaparte during the Napoleonic Wars, encompassing much of Europe

• Dependent States: These were territories ruled by Napoleon's relatives or loyal allies

• Allied States: These were countries that were forced into alliances with France, often through military defeat

• Napoleon spread the principles of the Napoleonic Code throughout the Grand Empire, standardizing laws and administrative practices

Continental System

• Berlin decree 

• Napoleon declared that european coastline was declared to be closed to British trade 

• Orders in Council 

• Britain responded by requiring all neutral vessels to pay a duty to trade with the continent 

• Decrees of Fontainebleau and Milan

• Napoleon threatened any neutral ships who paid with confiscation of cargo and vessels 

Berlin Decree

• Issued by Napoleon Bonaparte on November 21, 1806, following his victory over Prussia at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt

• The decree declared the British Isles to be in a state of blockade

• All British goods and merchandise found in territories controlled by France or its allies were to be confiscated

• The decree also affected neutral nations, including the United States, by prohibiting them from trading with Britain

Orders in Council

• Series of decrees issued by the British government during the Napoleonic Wars, aimed at restricting trade between France and neutral nations, particularly the United States

• Declared a blockade of the French coast from Brest to the Elbe River, restricting access for neutral ships

• Prohibited neutral ships from trading between French-controlled ports

• Required neutral ships carrying goods to French-controlled ports to first stop in British ports, pay duties, and obtain a license

Decrees of Fontainebleau and Milan

• Key components of Napoleon's Continental System, aimed at weakening Britain economically by disrupting its trade

• It imposed severe penalties on those caught smuggling British goods into French-controlled territories

• Authorized the seizure of neutral ships that complied with British trade regulations, including those that had been searched by British authorities or paid British taxes

• Significantly affected American shipping, contributing to tensions that eventually led to the War of 1812

Assessment of the Continental System

• Between 1808-1811 the system was successful 

• 42% of Britain's trade was with the continent that was now blockaded 

• By 1811, Britain faced an economic recession compounded by a bad harvest 

• System eventually failed 

Reasons for the failure of the Continental System

• Neglected opportunity 

• 1810-1811 Napoleon passed over the chance to starve Britain by allowing grain shipments in return for gold

• New markets 

• Britain found new markets in South America, Middle east, and the Baltic 

• Evasion: smuggling 

Organization of the Grand Empire

• French empire extended well beyond natural borders 

• Cordon of client states 

• Threatened states 

Governance of the Grand Empire

• Main aim in his administrative reforms was to maximize resources 

• Whittled away the elective principle and ruled through the nobles-the aristocracy and the new middle class

• Benefits of equality before the law, religious toleration, etc. 

• Commerce and communications were stimulated and reformed 

• Growth of the middle class benefited during the new order 

Fall of Napoleon

• Britain sought to maintain a balance of power in europe and keep open her commercial connections

• Naval supremacy 

• British economic power

The “Spanish ulcer”

• Persistent guerilla resistance in Spain resulting from imprisonment of King charles IV and Prince Ferdinand and his imposition of Joseph Bonaparte on the throne 

• Peninsular war (1808-1814)

Persistence of Austria and Prussia

• Resistance was revived by an element of patriotic resentment together with mounting fears as to their future in Napoleon's Europe 

• Reforms of the Prussian army

Invasion of Russia

• Space and time

• Scorched earth tactics 

• Eventual arrival of winter 

“Awakening of the peoples”

• Former allies and client states took advantage of the situation to turn against him 

• Decisive defeat at Leipzig , the Battle of the Nations 

• Reactions against the burdens of war 

• Self-interest of german leaders  

Internal coup

• Creation of the fourth coalition (March 1814) 

• Internal coup (April 1814)

• Conspiracy by Talleyrand seeking to restore the bourbons 

• Refusal of Napoleon's marshals to serve him 

First Treaty of Paris

• Reasonably moderate 

• French territories cut back only to those of 1792, leaving savory and the saar in the hands of France

• No indemnity or army of occupation  

• Talleyrand even obtained the rights for France to be represented at the conference 

Waterloo Campaign

• Army fearful for its future with the return of the emigres rallied to Napoleon 

• Needed a quick victory 

• Initial success but finally defeated by Wellington at Waterloo on 18 June 1815 when Prussia helps 

Duke of Wellington

• Wellington led British forces in the Peninsular War against Napoleon's armies in Spain and Portugal

• Leading the allied forces, he defeated Napoleon, effectively ending the Napoleonic Wars and securing his place in history as one of the greatest military commanders

• Remembered for his military genius, strategic foresight, and dedication to public service

Second Treaty of Paris

• French frontiers were set back to those of 1790 

• An occupation of 3-5 years and an indemnity of 700 million francs was imposed 

Exile in St. Helena

• Napoleon sent to the island of St. Helana under British supervision 

• Left isolated and alone 

• Eventually passed away on the island with rumors as to what happened