Oral Exam
2. Growing Issues from Mexican Cession and Escalation of Conflict
What growing issue came from the land acquired from Mexico?
The primary growing issue from the land acquired from Mexico (Mexican Cession) was the expansion of slavery. The newly acquired territories (California, Utah, New Mexico) reignited intense debates over whether these new states and territories would be free or slave, threatening the delicate balance of power in Congress.How did the 1850s see an escalation of conflict between regions in the United States?
The 1850s saw an escalation of conflict between regions due to several factors:The Compromise of 1850: Its provisions, particularly the Fugitive Slave Act, inflamed northern abolitionist sentiment and led to increased resistance.
Popular Sovereignty: The idea that settlers in a territory could decide on slavery, as applied in Kansas and Nebraska, led to violent clashes (Bleeding Kansas).
Court Decisions: The Dred Scott v. Sandford decision (1857) declared that African Americans were not citizens, that Congress could not prohibit slavery in territories, and that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional, further alienating the North.
Political Polarization: The collapse of the Whig Party and the rise of the anti-slavery Republican Party solidified regional loyalties.
What compromises were attempted and why did they not work?
Missouri Compromise (1820): Prohibited slavery north of latitude in the Louisiana Purchase. It failed because the vast new territories from the Mexican Cession were outside its scope, and the Kansas-Nebraska Act later repealed it.
Compromise of 1850: Admitted California as a free state, allowed popular sovereignty in Utah and New Mexico, ended the slave trade in D.C., and enacted a stricter Fugitive Slave Law. It did not work in the long term because the Fugitive Slave Law intensified northern opposition to slavery, and popular sovereignty led to violence.
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854): Proposed popular sovereignty for Kansas and Nebraska, effectively repealing the Missouri Compromise. This failed disastrously, leading to "Bleeding Kansas" as pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers clashed violently.
Was civil war inevitable?
Many historians argue that by the late 1850s, due to deep ideological divisions over slavery, failed political compromises, and increasing violence, civil war had become highly probable, if not outright inevitable. The fundamental economic, social, and moral differences concerning slavery had become too entrenched to be resolved politically.
3. Acquisition, Events, and Secession
What acquisition rekindled the conflict over slavery and why?
The Mexican Cession (land acquired from the Mexican-American War in 1848) rekindled the conflict over slavery because it added a huge amount of new territory to the United States. This immediately raised the question of whether these new territories would allow slavery, upsetting the delicate balance between free and slave states that had been maintained by compromises like the Missouri Compromise.Discuss at least three events in the 1850s that contributed to secession.
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854): Proposed popular sovereignty in Kansas and Nebraska, leading to "Bleeding Kansas" and violent clashes, demonstrating that this approach could not peacefully resolve the issue. It effectively repealed the Missouri Compromise, infuriating northerners.
Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857): The Supreme Court ruled that African Americans were not citizens and that Congress could not prohibit slavery in territories, declaring the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional. This validated the South's stance on slavery expansion but outraged the North.
John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry (1859): Abolitionist John Brown led a raid intending to arm slaves for a rebellion. Though it failed, it terrified the South, who saw it as Northern aggression and an attempt to incite slave insurrections.
What was the final straw that pushed the South to secede and why?
The final straw that pushed the South to secede was the election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860. Lincoln, a Republican, ran on an anti-slavery platform, advocating against the expansion of slavery into new territories. His victory, achieved without a single Southern electoral vote, was interpreted by Southern states as a direct threat to their institution of slavery and their way of life, believing he would eventually move to abolish it throughout the country.What political rhetoric/precedence did the Southern states use to justify secession?
Southern states primarily justified secession using:States' Rights: Arguing that the Union was a compact among sovereign states, and they had the right to secede if the federal government violated their rights.
Compact Theory of Government: Believing states retained ultimate sovereignty and could withdraw from the voluntary agreement forming the U.S.
Protection of Property (Slaves): Viewing enslaved people as property and asserting the right to secede to protect these property rights and their economic system.
Revolutionary Precedent: Implicitly invoking the American Revolution as a right to revolution against an oppressive government.
A. Root of the Civil War, Turning Points, Generals, and Strategies
What issue is at the root of the Civil War beginning and why?
The issue at the root of the Civil War beginning was slavery, specifically the fundamental disagreement over its existence, expansion, and moral legitimacy. While other factors like states' rights and economic differences contributed, they were all inextricably linked to slavery. The inability to compromise on slavery's future ultimately shattered the Union.What were the main turning points of the war? Discuss each.
Battle of Antietam (September 1862):
Description: The bloodiest single-day battle in American history ( casualties), where Union General George McClellan stopped Confederate General Robert E. Lee's invasion of Maryland.
Impact: Gave President Lincoln the strategic triumph needed to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, shifting the war's objective to include abolishing slavery and discouraging European intervention for the Confederacy.
Battle of Gettysburg (July 1863):
Description: The largest battle of the war in Pennsylvania, where Lee's second invasion of the North was decisively repelled by Union General George Meade.
Impact: A crushing defeat for the Confederacy, marking the "high-water mark of the Confederacy". Lee's army suffered irreplaceable losses and never again launched a major offensive into Union territory, boosting Union morale.
Siege of Vicksburg (July 1863):
Description: Union General Ulysses S. Grant's -day siege of Vicksburg, Mississippi, a key Confederate stronghold, which eventually surrendered.
Impact: Gave the Union complete control of the Mississippi River, cutting the Confederacy in half, severing crucial supply lines, and fulfilling a major Union objective.
Who were the primary generals leading the North and the South by the end of the war?
North (Union):
Ulysses S. Grant: General-in-Chief of all Union armies.
William Tecumseh Sherman: Principal commander in the Western Theater, famous for his "March to the Sea."
South (Confederacy):
Robert E. Lee: Commander of the Army of Northern Virginia and eventually General-in-Chief of all Confederate armies.
What were their respective strategies (by the end of the war)?
Union Strategy (Grant & Sherman - "Total War"):
Attrition and Constant Pressure: Relentlessly engaging Confederate forces to wear them down, leveraging superior manpower and resources.
Anaconda Plan (intensified): Continuing the naval blockade to suffocate the Southern economy.
Destruction of Southern Infrastructure and Will to Fight: Sherman's campaigns involved widespread destruction of resources and property to cripple the South's ability and will to wage war.
Confederate Strategy (Lee):
Defensive Warfare with Strategic Offensives: Defending Confederate territory while launching occasional offensives into the North to seek a decisive victory, gain foreign recognition, or influence Northern public opinion.
Protracted War: To prolong the conflict and inflict heavy casualties, hoping to exhaust the Union's will to fight and secure a negotiated peace.
Preservation of Army: Avoiding the outright destruction of his main army due to limited Confederate manpower reserves.
5. Reconstruction Attempts, Congressional Actions, and Success
Who attempted Reconstruction first and why was Congress so upset about it?
President Andrew Johnson attempted Reconstruction first. Congress was upset because:Leniency Towards the South: Johnson's plan was very lenient, allowing Southern states easy re-entry with few demands and pardoning many ex-Confederates.
Black Codes: Southern states, under Johnson's plan, quickly passed discriminatory "Black Codes" that restricted African American freedoms.
Exclusion of African Americans: His plan did little to protect freed slaves' rights or involve them politically.
Congressional Authority: Radical Republicans felt Johnson was usurping Congress's power and was too sympathetic to the South.
Re-election of Confederates: Southern states began sending former Confederate leaders back to Congress, which incensed Northern Republicans.
What law did Congress pass to attempt to trap the president? Did it work?
Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act in 1867 to attempt to trap President Johnson. This law required Senate approval for the president to remove certain officeholders, particularly cabinet members. It did work in instigating impeachment; Johnson challenged it by dismissing Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, leading to his impeachment by the House. However, it did not work in removing him from office, as he was acquitted by the Senate by a single vote.When Congressional Reconstruction began, what programs and policies defined this period?
Congressional Reconstruction (from 1867) was defined by more punitive and progressive policies:Military Reconstruction Act of 1867: Divided the former Confederacy into five military districts under martial law until new state constitutions were approved.
Requirement for New State Constitutions: Southern states had to draft new constitutions guaranteeing universal manhood suffrage.
Ratification of and Amendments: States were required to ratify the Amendment (citizenship, equal protection) and the Amendment (voting rights regardless of race).
Freedmen's Bureau: Strengthened to provide aid, education, and legal assistance to freed slaves and poor whites.
Federal Troops: Remained in the South to enforce policies and protect African American rights.
Rise of Republican Governments in the South: Backed by African American voters, "carpetbaggers," and "scalawags."
Was Reconstruction successful? Why or why not?
No, Reconstruction was largely unsuccessful in achieving its long-term goals of establishing full racial equality and fully integrating African Americans into mainstream Southern society.Why not successful:
Racial Violence and Terrorism: White supremacist groups like the Ku Klux Klan used violence to suppress African American voting and maintain white dominance.
Economic Dependency: Sharecropping and crop-lien systems trapped many in debt and poverty.
Political Backlash and Redemption: Southern Democrats regained control through voter suppression and appeals to white supremacy.
Lack of Federal Commitment: Northern interest waned, leading to troop withdrawal (Compromise of 1877) and scaled-back enforcement.
Supreme Court Rulings: Court decisions chipped away at federal protections and legalized segregation.
Systematic Segregation: The rise of Jim Crow laws institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination.
However, it did have some successes:
Abolition of Slavery: The 13th Amendment permanently ended chattel slavery.
Constitutional Amendments: The 14th and 15th Amendments laid critical groundwork for future civil rights movements by establishing principles of equal protection and voting rights.
African American Participation: For a brief period, African Americans actively participated in politics and contributed to new state constitutions.