Chapter 1 anatomy
Anatomy: the study of structure & shape of the body a its parts a relationships to one another
Subdivisions
• Gross or macroscopic (visible to the naked eye)
• Microscopic (too small to see w/naked eye)
• Developmental (embryology)
Physiology - the study of how the body works or functions
• based on organ system
Anatomy & Physiology are always related
• structure determines function
Levels of Structural Organization
Chemical - atoms a molecules
smallest
Cellular: cells & their organelles
Tissue - groups
Of similar cells
Oragn: contains two or more types of tissues
Organ system: organs that work closely together
organism: all
organ systems
Organ Systems
1. Integumentary - Skin
2. SKeletal - SKeleton
3. Muscular - muscles
4. Nervous - nerves/brain fight
5. Endocrine - hormones
6. Cardiovascular - heart
7. Lymphatic - lyme
nodes
8. Respiratory - breathing / lunges
9. Digestive - digestive
10. Urinary - pee, Kidneys
11 Reproductive - babies I reproduce
SKin (Integumentary System)
- Skin
- nails
Skin derivatives
- hair
Functions
1. forms the external body covering à protects
underlying tissues from injury
2. Synthesizes vitamin D & contains pair, pressure
& temperature & sweat glands
Skeletal System
Parts: bones, cartilage, joints
Functions
1. Protects a supports body organs
2. Provides a framework muscles used fur movement
3. Site of blood furmation
4. Bones store minerals
Unlike octopus
Muscular System
Parts : Muscle tissue
Functions:
1. Contract to allow movement manipulation of the
environment, locomotion, a facial expression
2. Maintains posture
3. Produces heat
Nervous System
Parts: Brain, Sensory receptors, spinal cord,
nerves
Functions:
1. Control center of the body
2. Regulates, senses, a responds to internal a external changes by activating motor neurons a their respective muscles a glands Endocrine System
Parts Secretory Glands
1. Endocrine glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as
a. growth
b. reproduction
c. metabolism (nutrient ned by cells
Cardiovascular System
Parts: Heart a blood vessels
Functions:
1. Delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues
2. Equalizes temperature in the body
3. Transports waste from cells to excretory system
Lymphatic & Immune System
Parts: Lymph nodes, lymphatics vessels, white blood cells (immunity)
Functions:
• Assists the cardiovascular system in returning leaked
fluids back to
blood stream
• Lymph nodes a cleanse the blood
other lymphoid organs
• Houses white blood cells, which are Involved in immunity
Respiratory System
Parts: Nascal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, lungs, alveoli
Functions:
1. Supplies blood wi oxygen
2. Removes carbon dioxide
Digestive System
Functions:
- Includes the oral
cavity (mouth) , esophagus,
stomach, small a large instines, rectum e
accessory organs
- breaks down food
- Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
- Eliminates indigestible material as feces (poop)
Urinary System
- Includes the kidneys, ureters, urinary
bladder a urethra
- Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
- Maintains acid - base balance
-regulates water an electrolyte balance
- Helps regulate normal blood pressure
Reproductive System
• In males, includes the testes, scrotum, Penis,
accessory glands, & duct system
• testes produce sperm
• duct system carries sperm to exterior
- In females, includes the ovaries, uterine tubes,
uterus a vagina
• ovaries produce eggs
• uterus
provides of development for fetus
Maintaining Life
Humans must carry out 8 necessary life functions
1. Maintain boundaries
2. Move, respond to environmental changes
3. Absorb i digest nutrients
4. Maintain metabolism
S. Excrete waste
6. Respond to environmental changes
7. Reproduction
8. Grow
1. Maintaining Boundaries
• Cell membranes separate cell contents from
interstitial substances
• The skin protects internal organsfrom
dying out, from pathogens & from heat,
sunlight & the external environment
2. Movement
• Movement (Propulsion) such as walking, swimming
• manipulating our environment
- musculo skeletal movement
• movement of blood, nutrients, urine, bowols
3. Response to Stimulr
• Responsiveness to be able to sense
environmental changes (stimuli) a react
- feedback mechanisms (02-(02)
- autonomic responses
- Nervous syst
4. Digestion
• The process of breaking down food
that has been ingested into smaller, simple molecules that can be easily
absorbed by body cells
- simple sugars, amino acids, vitamins
5. Metabolism
refers to all chemical reactions that occur in the body
- breaking down substances
- Using nutrients
- AtP production
6. Excretion- the process of removing waste products from the body food (pop) feces)
- indigestible
- Urea (urine)
- Skin (sweat)
7. Reproduction
Involves the production of offspring
-cellular reproduction
- Humon orgonismal reproduction
Humans have
S survival neels
1. Nutrients
2. Oxygen
3. Water
4. Temperature
5. Atmosphere
1. Nutrients
a. macronutrients (carbohydrates, protein fat)
b. micrionutrients (vitamins, minerals, co-factors)
2 • Molecular Oxygen (02)
a. Chemical reactions that release energy from food require Oz
b. Human begins to die within a
few minutes after Or deprivation
3. Water
a. 60-80% of body weight
b. most abundant chemical substance in the body
4. Temperature
a. 98.6°F metabolic reactions Sow
b. > 102°% metabolic reactions too rapit.
proteins break down
c. Both lead to death
5. Atmosphere
a. the weight of air
b. Atmospheric pressure impacts oxygen -carbon
dioxide exchange in the lungs
Anatomical position assumes that the body
is in a standard position
- Body is erect
- feet parallel
- arms hanging at the sides
- palms facing forward
Directional Terms allow medical professionals to explain exactly where one body structure is in relation to another
Anterior (or ventral) describes the front
or direction toward the front of the body
- The toes are anterior to the foot
Posterior (or dorsal) describes the back
or direction toward the back
Superior (or cranial) describes position above
or higher than
another part of the
Inferior (or candal) describes a position
below or lower than another part of the
body proper; near
or toward the tail
Lateral describes
the side or direction
toward the side of the body
Medial describes the middle or direction
toward the middle of the body
Proximal describes a position in a limb
that is hearer to the point of attachment
or the trunk of the boy
Distal describes a position In a limb
that is farther
prăm the point of
attachment or the trunk of the body
Superficial describes
a position closer to
the body
Deep (intemal)
describes a position away from the body surface; toward the internal
Regional Terms
Acromial - point of shoulder
Cephalic - head region
Cervical - neck region
Frontal -
forehead
Nasal -
hose area
Oral-mouth
Orbital locular eye
Axillary - armpit'
costal - ribs
Deltoid - curve of shoulder formed by deltoid muscles
Calconeal - heel of foot
Pectoral - the chest
Sternal - breast bone area
Abdominal-anterior trunk inferior to ribs
Inguinal - grain area where tigh meets the body
Pelvic- body Surface anterior to the pelvis
Pubic - genital area
Antebrachial - forearm
Antecubital - anterior elbow area
Branchial - arm
Buccal - cheek
Umbilical - navel, belly button
Carpal - wrist
Digital - fingers, toes
Manus - hand
Palmar - pain of hand Crural - antertor leg, shin
Tarsal - ankle region
Mental - chih
Femoral- anterior a posterior thigh
Patellar - anterior Knee
Thoracic - chest
Coxal - hip
Olecranal-posterior surface of elbow
Gluteal - buttock
Lumbar - area of low back between ribs & hips
Pedal - foot
Plantar - bottum of foot Popliteal - back of Knee
Sural - calf; posterior surface of leg Occipital - base of skull; posterior head
Sacral- area between hips at base of the spine
Scapular- area above the shoulder blade Vertebal-area along the spinal column
Body Plones
Section - cut along a body plane
Sagittal section - a cut along the longitudinal plane of the body dividing the body or organ into rignt &
left ports
Midsagi Hal (median) section-a sagittal cut resulting in equal right & left halves
Midsagi Hal (median) section-a cut along the length wise plane divides the body into anterior E posterior
Frontal (coronal section
Transverse (cross) section- u cut along a horizontal plane dividing the buy or organ into superior & inferiur parts
Body Cavaties
Internal body cavities house a protect organs
Two major sets of internal budy cavities
Dorsal Body Cavities
Subdivisions
Cranial cavity-space inside skull
• Houses the brain
Spinal cavity- extends from the cranial cavity to the end of spinal cord
- surrounes the spine
ventral body cavities
Contains all structures within the chest i adomen
Thoracic Subdivision
Thoracis cavity- Space inside the chest
- separated from abdomen pelvic cavity
by the diaphragm
- contains the lungs & heart...
-separated into right or left sides by the
medrastinum
Abdomimo pelvic Subdivision
Abdominopelvic cavity- cavity inferior to the
diaphragm
1. Superior abdominal cavity
• contains stomach, liver, intestines...
2. lower pelvic carity
• contains the reproductive organs
Four Quadrants of the Abdominopelvic Cavity
1. Rignt Uppper quadrants
(RUO)
2. left Upper quarants
(LOQ)
3. Right lower quadrants (R<Q)
4. left lower quadrants cLa)
Nine Regions of AbdominopelvicCavity
Umbilical Region - center of abtomen; deep to & surrounding the umbilicus (naval).
Epigastic Region - superior to umbilical region
(epi- above; gastric: stomach)
Hypogastric (pubic) region - interior to the
umbilical region (hypo- below)
Right iliac (inguinal region) - lateral to the
hypogastric region
Left Iliac (inguinal region) - lateral to the nypogastric region (iliac - superior hip bune)
Right lumbar region - lateral to the umbilical region a spinal column between the bottom ribs t the hip bones
Left lumbar region - lateral to the umbilical regron a
spibal column between the bottom
vilos a hip bones
Right hypo chandriac region- lateral to the epigastric region
Left hypuchondriac region - lateral to
• pigastric region
Homeostasis - maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions
- A dynamic state of equilibrium necessary to sustain life and for normal body functioning
• Main controlling systems
- Nervous system
- Endocrine system
• Homeostatic imbalance
- A disturbance in homeostasis results in illness or disease
Maintaining Homeostasis
• Homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three components:
- Receptor
- Control center
- Effector
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
• Receptor
- Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)
- Sends information to control center along an afferent pathway
• Afferent (sensory) pathways carry sensory info towards CNS
• Control center
- Determines set point
- Analyzes information
- Determines appropriate feedback response
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
• Effector
- Provides a means for response to the stimulus
- Information flows from control center to effector along efferent pathway
• Efferent (motor) pathways carry motor commands away from the CNS
Afferent vs Efferent Pathways
• Afferent pathways
- transmit information about stimuli from the body's periphery (like skin, muscles, and organs) to the CNS
- signals related to touch, temperature, pain, and proprioception (sense of body position)
- crucial for sensory perception and initiating reflexes
• Efferent Pathways
- transmit signals from the CNS to effector organs, such as muscles and glands, to produce a response.
- signals that cause muscle contraction, gland secretion, and other bodily actions.
- essential for movement, bodily functions, and behavioral responses
Feedback Mechanisms
• Negative feedback
- Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms
- Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity
• Positive feedback
- Rare in the human body
- Increases the original stimulus to push the variable farther
- Reaction occurs at a faster rate
- In the body, positive feedback occurs in blood clotting and during the birth of a baby