War of 1812
APUSH NOTES — CAUSES OF THE WAR OF 1812
I. Background Tension After Independence
Britain still viewed the U.S. as a rival to its economy and trade.
U.S. leaders (Washington, Adams, Jefferson) dealt with constant maritime and diplomatic friction.
Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815) placed U.S. neutrality under pressure.
II. British Maritime Policies
1. British Rule of 1756
Neutral nations could not open trade routes in wartime that were closed in peacetime.
Goal: stop France from using American ships for trade.
U.S. tried to bypass the rule with “broken voyages”:
French goods shipped to U.S., “re-exported” as U.S. goods.
Britain tolerated it until 1805, then declared it illegal.
2. Orders in Council (1806)
Known as the “Fox Blockade.”
Blockaded most of the European coastline.
Required neutral ships to stop in British ports and submit to search.
Hurt American trade directly.
3. French Response: Berlin Decree (1806)
Napoleon declared the British Isles under blockade.
Any ship that obeyed British searches would be seized as “denationalized.”
U.S. stuck in impossible dilemma:
Comply with Britain → seized by France.
Ignore Britain → seized by Britain.
III. U.S. Attempts to Protect Neutral Rights
1. Embargo Act (1807)
Banned ALL U.S. exports.
Goal: force Britain and France to respect neutral rights.
Result: major economic disaster in the U.S.
Ports collapsed.
Sailors unemployed.
Farmers couldn’t sell crops.
Land speculation tanked.
Led to smuggling and loopholes (“blown off course” excuse).
Only positive: investment shifted to domestic manufacturing → textile mills increased sharply.
Politically unpopular—especially in New England.
2. Non-Intercourse Act (1809)
Replaced the Embargo Act.
Reopened trade with all nations except Britain and France.
Ineffective—neither nation changed policies.
3. Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810)
Reopened trade with Britain AND France.
Promised to embargo the other country if one stopped violating neutral rights.
Napoleon pretended to comply; U.S. cut trade with Britain.
This worsened tensions with Britain.
IV. Impressment of American Sailors
British navy forced men into service (“press gangs”).
Conditions on British ships were brutal, so many deserted to American ships.
Britain claimed the right to recapture deserters → used as excuse to impress Americans.
Over 6,000 American sailors were impressed between 1803–1812.
Key flashpoint: Chesapeake–Leopard Affair (1807)
British ship fired on USS Chesapeake.
Took alleged deserters—three were U.S. citizens.
U.S. public outrage skyrocketed.
V. Western and Southern Pressure: The War Hawks
Aggressive young Republicans demanded war.
Led by:
Henry Clay (KY)
John C. Calhoun (SC)
Richard M. Johnson
William R. King
Motivations:
Protect national honor.
Protect agricultural exports.
Stop British interference with shipping.
Expand U.S. territory (Canada & Florida).
VI. Rise of American Nationalism
After 30+ years of independence, national pride increased.
Many Americans wanted to assert sovereignty at sea.
Belief that Canada and Florida naturally belonged to the U.S.
War seen as a way to complete the “second war for independence.”
VII. Conflict with Native Americans and British Support
1. Western Expansion Tension
Settlers moved into the Northwest Territory.
U.S. policy claimed Indians must be compensated.
Settlers often ignored rules and cheated impoverished tribes.
2. Harrison’s Land Deal (1809)
William Henry Harrison obtained land along the Wabash River.
Treaty signed by tribes that didn’t actually own the land.
Angered legitimate tribes.
3. Tecumseh and the Shawnee Resistance
Tecumseh (political leader) and his brother Tenskwatawa (Lalawethica, the Prophet) united tribes to stop land cessions.
Viewed land as collectively owned.
4. Battle of Tippecanoe (1811)
Tecumseh away gathering allies.
Prophet launched unauthorized attack on Harrison’s troops.
Native forces defeated.
Harrison became national hero.
Many Americans blamed British support for Native resistance.
This boosted the argument that war against Britain was necessary to “protect the frontier.”
VIII. Summary: Main Causes of the War of 1812
Use this for essays or FRQs.
1. Violation of Neutral Rights
British Orders in Council
French Berlin/Milan Decrees
Interference with U.S. shipping
2. Impressment of American Sailors
Over 6,000 kidnapped by Britain
Chesapeake–Leopard Affair
3. Economic Pressure and Failed Policies
Embargo Act
Non-Intercourse Act
Macon’s Bill No. 2
4. War Hawks in Congress
National honor
Agricultural losses
Expansionist goals (Canada, Florida)
5. British Support for Native Resistance
Tecumseh alliance
Battle of Tippecanoe
6. Growing Nationalism
Desire to prove U.S. independence
Anti-British sentiment
APUSH NOTES — Federalists vs. Republicans on the War of 1812
I. Madison’s War Message
June 1, 1812 → President James Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war against Britain.
Causes he cited:
Impressment of U.S. sailors
Violation of neutral maritime rights
British support of Native American resistance on the frontier
War passed by narrowest margin in U.S. history:
House: 79–49
Senate: 19–13
Shows deep division within Congress and the nation.
II. Republican Position (Pro-War)
1. Led by War Hawks
Leaders: Henry Clay (KY), John C. Calhoun (SC)
Mostly from the West and South.
2. Motivations
Defend national honor after British insults at sea.
Stop British support for Native tribes.
Expand U.S. territory:
Many wanted Canada.
Others looked toward Florida (still Spanish).
3. Geographic Support
Southern and Western Republicans strongly supported war.
These regions were agricultural and hit hard by trade restrictions.
III. Federalist Position (Anti-War)
1. Primarily Northeastern
Federalists in New York, Massachusetts, New England opposed war.
Region depended on trade and shipping—war threatened their economy.
2. Reasons for Opposition
Believed war was a Republican scheme to take Canada.
Did not want the U.S. aligning indirectly with Napoleon against Britain.
Thought diplomacy or economic pressure, not war, was the solution.
Feared a war would damage New England’s commerce and shipping.
3. Federalist Claims
War would:
Ruin trade
Increase federal power
Expand Republican territory and influence
IV. Sectional Divide
South & West: mostly Republican, pro-war
North (especially New England): mostly Federalist, anti-war
Shows early example of sectionalism based on economic interests.
V. How the War Was Approved
War passed only because dense states with large Republican populations supported it:
Virginia
Pennsylvania
Maryland
Their size and representation tipped the vote.
VI. Why This Section Matters in APUSH
It highlights early:
Party divisions
Regional economic differences
Emerging nationalism vs. commercial pragmatism
Tension between Republican “agricultural empire” vision and Federalist commercial interests
This section is essential for understanding:
⭐ The politics behind the War of 1812
⭐ The decline of the Federalist Party
⭐ The roots of sectionalism
APUSH NOTES — The War of 1812 & Its Legacy
I. U.S. Weakness at the Start of the War
U.S. was unprepared militarily and financially.
Embargo Act & Non-Intercourse Act weakened the economy before the war.
U.S. Army:
Fewer than 7,000 soldiers
Poorly trained, many aging
Relied heavily on unreliable militia
U.S. Navy:
Only 16 warships, but performed better than the army early on.
Won a few early naval victories.
Eventually bottled up by British naval blockade.
II. Failed Invasion of Canada (1812)
Goal
Remove British influence from Canada.
Break British support for Native Americans.
Expand U.S. territory.
Strategy
U.S. planned a three-pronged invasion:
General Dearborn → Lake Champlain
General Van Rensselaer → Niagara River
General Hull → Detroit
Why It Failed
U.S. generals acted separately instead of coordinating.
Best strategy would’ve been attacking Montreal together.
Militia refused to cross into Canada.
Van Rensselaer captured Queenston Heights but got no militia support.
Dearborn stalled by militiamen who wouldn’t cross border.
Hull surrendered Detroit without a fight because of false rumors about Indian massacres.
Result: Total disaster. Strengthened British resolve.
III. Battle of Bladensburg (1814)
Context
After Napoleon’s fall, Britain redirected experienced troops to America.
About 4,000 British troops under Admiral Cochrane arrived from Europe.
Americans scuttled their own gunboats to prevent capture.
Battle
U.S. troops (approx. 1,700 under General Winder) + militia + sailors attempted defense.
Poor coordination, no unified strategy.
British rockets and disciplined troops easily routed American forces.
Only the 400 sailors fought effectively.
Result: Path to Washington, D.C. was left wide open.
IV. Burning of Washington (1814)
British captured Washington D.C. in August 1814.
President Madison and Dolley Madison evacuated the capital.
British burned:
White House
Capitol
Treasury
War Office
Reason for British retaliation
Revenge for U.S. burning York (Toronto) in 1813.
Impact
Shocked the nation.
Strengthened U.S. resolve.
Increased nationalism and desire to end the war on honorable terms.
V. Battle of North Point / Defense of Baltimore (1814)
British Plan
Take Baltimore after burning Washington.
Two-pronged attack:
Land: Under General Robert Ross
Sea: Under Admiral Cochrane targeting Fort McHenry
Outcome
Americans had 13,000 defenders, mostly militia.
Ross was killed at North Point.
Colonel Arthur Brooke took command but hesitated to advance.
Awaited word from the naval attack which ultimately failed.
VI. Battle of Fort McHenry (September 13–14, 1814)
British Naval Attack
Cochrane couldn’t use heavy ships due to shallow water.
Smaller ships bombarded fort for 25 hours straight.
British attempted a night rocket attack using 1,200 soldiers in boats.
Rockets revealed their position to Americans → failed.
American Defense
Major George Armistead commanded 1,000 defenders.
Replaced the smaller storm flag with the giant garrison flag at dawn.
British Reaction
Seeing the enormous American flag still flying proved the fort was undefeated.
British withdrew from Baltimore.
VII. Birth of "The Star-Spangled Banner"
Francis Scott Key, negotiating prisoner release aboard a British ship, witnessed the bombardment.
Inspired by the sight of the flag still waving at dawn.
Wrote a poem:
Originally “Defence of Fort McHenry”
Later set to “To Anacreon in Heaven” (English tune)
Became the national anthem officially in 1931.
Key Themes for APUSH Essays
1. American Weakness → British Confidence
Poor planning, weak army, reliance on militia.
2. British Revenge for York
Burning of Washington was symbolic retaliation.
3. Rise of American Nationalism
Battles at Baltimore and McHenry unified the country.
Star-Spangled Banner became symbol of resilience.
4. Canadian Invasion = Total Failure
Highlights American military inexperience.
APUSH NOTES — The Treaty of Ghent (1814)
I. Background to Peace Negotiations
Early attempts to avoid war failed once fighting began in 1812.
After two years of mixed victories and defeats, both nations grew tired of the conflict.
August 1814: U.S. delegation sent to Ghent, Belgium.
Delegation included John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and others.
II. British Position at the Start
Britain began negotiations confidently after early victories.
Initial demands included:
U.S. land cession to create a buffer Native American state.
Control over Great Lakes region.
Continued ability to interfere in Native American affairs.
U.S. delegates refused, creating a diplomatic deadlock.
III. Why Britain Softened Its Demands
1. Military setbacks
British defeat at Baltimore/Fort McHenry.
British difficulties in other U.S. campaigns.
Realization that a decisive victory was unlikely.
2. Domestic pressure in Britain
British public tired of heavy taxation to fund war.
Merchants eager to resume profitable trade with U.S.
British government still recovering from Napoleonic Wars.
3. Strategic overextension
Britain did not want a prolonged conflict across two continents.
IV. Terms of the Treaty of Ghent
Effective Date
Signed: December 24, 1814
Ratified: February 1815
Core Feature
Status quo ante bellum = “the state as before the war.”
Meaning:
No territory exchanged.
No side gained or lost land.
What the Treaty DID Establish
End of fighting.
Restoration of pre-war boundaries.
Return of prisoners of war.
Mutual promise to end hostilities with Native tribes.
What the Treaty DID NOT Address
Impressment of American sailors.
British Orders in Council.
Neutral shipping rights.
British interference with Native Americans.
These issues faded naturally because the Napoleonic Wars ended, removing the main cause of British maritime aggression.
V. Significance of the Treaty
1. No winner, but U.S. claims psychological victory
Surviving a war against the world’s strongest empire boosted nationalism.
Americans viewed it as a “second war for independence.”
2. End of Federalist Party
Federalists opposed the war; their stance looked unpatriotic after the peace.
The Hartford Convention damaged their reputation.
Party collapsed soon after.
3. Beginning of the “Era of Good Feelings”
Renewed national unity.
Surge in patriotism.
Rise in manufacturing because of wartime disruptions.
Quick Memory Lines
Treaty of Ghent = truce, not triumph.
Returned everything to the way it was before the war, addressed none of the causes, but gave the U.S. a major psychological boost.
APUSH NOTES — The Hartford Convention (1814–1815)
I. Federalist Opposition to the War
Federalists opposed the War of 1812 from the beginning.
Believed it was:
Poorly planned
Motivated by Republican expansionism (Canada)
Economically dangerous
Most Federalists were concentrated in New England, a region economically dependent on trade.
Embargo Act + wartime blockades devastated New England shipping.
II. Why the Hartford Convention Was Called
As the war dragged on, U.S. suffered early humiliating defeats.
Federalists saw this as proof that the war was a bad idea.
Fear of a British attack on New England increased anxiety.
December 1814, Federalists met in Hartford, Connecticut.
Goal: discuss New England’s grievances and propose constitutional changes.
III. The Debate at Hartford
Radical Federalists
Wanted to discuss secession of New England from the Union.
Felt Republican rule ignored their interests.
Viewed the South and West as dominating national policy.
Moderate Federalists
Rejected secession.
Focused on reforming the political structure to protect New England.
IV. Proposed Reforms (Constitutional Amendments)
The Convention produced a list of demands to reduce Southern/Western political power:
Limit president to one term.
No two successive presidents from the same state.
Direct response to “Virginia Dynasty”
(Washington, Jefferson, Madison all from Virginia)
Require a 2/3 congressional vote for:
War declarations
Trade embargoes
Admission of new states
Prohibit embargoes lasting longer than 60 days.
These changes aimed to weaken Republican dominance and protect New England’s interests.
V. Why the Hartford Convention Failed
While delegates were preparing to present their demands, two major events occurred:
1. U.S. Victory at the Battle of New Orleans
Andrew Jackson defeated the British in a stunning victory.
Made Americans feel proud and patriotic.
2. News of the Treaty of Ghent
Peace had already been signed on December 24, 1814.
War was over.
Federalist complaints suddenly looked:
Unnecessary
Ungrateful
Disloyal
VI. Impact of the Hartford Convention
1. Federalists Seen as Traitors
Timing made them appear unpatriotic during a moment of national celebration.
Their talk of secession damaged their credibility.
2. Collapse of the Federalist Party
Ridiculed as defeatists and disloyal.
Lost the 1816 election badly.
The party essentially disappeared afterward.
Last major Federalist candidate was Rufus King in 1816.
3. Rise of Nationalism
Republicans gained popularity.
Federalist decline allowed the start of the Era of Good Feelings under James Monroe.
Quick Memory Lines
✔ Hartford Convention = New England Federalists complaining about the war.
✔ Proposed constitutional amendments to limit Republican/Southern power.
✔ Seen as traitors when peace + victory arrived → Federalist Party collapses.
APUSH NOTES — The War of 1812: A Second War of Independence
I. Why the War Earned This Nickname
After the Revolutionary War, Britain still treated the U.S. as a subordinate nation. Many Americans believed Britain was trying to maintain indirect control over the United States.
1. British Attempts to Control U.S. Trade
British Rule of 1756 restricted neutral nations’ wartime trade.
Orders in Council (1806) blockaded Europe and forced U.S. ships to stop in British ports.
Britain interfered with American shipping to protect its own economy.
2. Impressment of American Sailors
British navy forced American sailors into service (over 6,000 between 1803–1812).
Seen as a direct violation of U.S. sovereignty.
Chesapeake–Leopard affair turned public opinion fiercely anti-British.
3. British Support for Native Americans
U.S. believed Britain was encouraging resistance in the Northwest Territory.
Tecumseh’s alliance with Britain strengthened this perception.
Combined, these actions made Americans feel Britain was still treating them like a colony.
II. War as an Assertion of Sovereignty
Declaring war in 1812 was a bold move for a young nation.
1. Reinforcing Independence
U.S. leaders wanted to prove the nation was strong enough to defend its rights.
War showed the world the U.S. would not be bullied by a European superpower.
2. Desire to Remove British Influence from North America
Many hoped to:
Push Britain out of Canada
Secure the U.S. frontier against British-backed Native resistance
Even though the invasion of Canada failed, the intention symbolized national ambition and self-confidence.
III. What the U.S. Gained (Even Without Territorial Gains)
1. Confirmation of Independence
Treaty of Ghent restored status quo ante bellum (pre-war borders).
But the psychological result was powerful:
The U.S. held its own against the strongest naval power in the world.
No more talk of Britain controlling U.S. trade or borders.
Impressment became irrelevant after Napoleon’s fall.
2. Rise of Nationalism
American morale soared after:
Defense of Fort McHenry
Victory at New Orleans
Nation celebrated symbols of unity:
Star-Spangled Banner
Heroic figures like Andrew Jackson
Widespread pride in having “stood firm”
3. Decline of the Federalists
Their opposition to the war appeared disloyal.
Hartford Convention tarnished their reputation.
Party collapsed by 1816.
National unity strengthened under the Republicans.
This political shift helped end sectional divides (temporarily) and set the stage for the Era of Good Feelings.
IV. Why APUSH Considers It a Turning Point
1. U.S. military + diplomatic legitimacy increased
European nations took the U.S. more seriously.
U.S. could no longer be treated as a minor nuisance in world affairs.
2. Economic Independence
Embargo + war disruptions forced U.S. industry to grow.
Start of American manufacturing boom.
3. Western Expansion Accelerated
Native resistance weakened after Tecumseh’s death.
More settlers moved west.
Quick Memory Lines
⭐ The war settled nothing on paper — but everything in spirit.
⭐ U.S. proved it could defend its sovereignty against Britain again.
⭐ Victory sparked nationalism and crushed the Federalist Party.
⭐ America emerged more unified, confident, and independent.