BIOL210: Human Anatomy and Physiology II Study Guide

Chapter 17 Study Guide Learning Outcomes

Essential Terms

Hormone: A chemical messenger released into the blood to affect target cells.
Endocrine System: A group of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate body processes.
Major Endocrine Organs:
  - Hypothalamus
  - Pituitary Gland
  - Pineal Gland
  - Thyroid Gland
  - Parathyroid Glands
  - Thymus
  - Adrenal Glands
  - Pancreas (Islets)
  - Gonads (Ovaries, Testes)

Comparison of Gland Types

Endocrine Glands:
  - Release hormones into blood
  - No ducts
  - Affect distant organs
  - Example: Thyroid
Exocrine Glands:
  - Release substances through ducts
  - Affect nearby surfaces
  - Example: Sweat Glands

Nervous vs. Endocrine Systems

Nervous System:
  - Uses electrical signals
  - Fast response
  - Short-lasting effects
  - Very specific targets
Endocrine System:
  - Uses hormones
  - Slower response
  - Long-lasting effects
  - Widespread targets

Anatomical Relationships between the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

Control: The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland.
Connection: Connected by the infundibulum (pituitary stalk).
Uses:
- Nerve signals (posterior pituitary)
- Blood portal system (anterior pituitary)

Anterior vs. Posterior Pituitary Lobes

Anterior Pituitary:
  - Produces its own hormones
  - Controlled by blood
  - Composed of glandular tissue
Posterior Pituitary:
  - Stores hormones from hypothalamus
  - Controlled by nerves
  - Composed of nervous tissue

Hormones Produced by Hypothalamus and Pituitary

Hypothalamus Hormones:
  - TRH: Stimulates TSH release
  - CRH: Stimulates ACTH release
  - GnRH: Stimulates FSH & LH
  - GHRH: Stimulates GH
  - PIH (Dopamine): Inhibits prolactin
  - Somatostatin: Inhibits GH & TSH

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

GH (Growth Hormone):
- Function: Growth of bone & muscle
TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone):
- Function: Stimulates thyroid
ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone):
- Function: Stimulates adrenal cortex
FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone):
- Function: Egg & sperm production
LH (Luteinizing Hormone):
- Function: Ovulation & testosterone secretion
PRL (Prolactin):
- Function: Milk production

Posterior Pituitary Hormones

ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone):
- Function: Water retention in kidneys
Oxytocin:
- Function: Uterine contractions & milk ejection

Structure and Function of Remaining Endocrine Glands

Pineal Gland:
- Hormone: Melatonin
- Function: Regulates sleep cycle
Thyroid Gland:
- Hormones: T3, T4, Calcitonin
- Function: Metabolism, calcium regulation
Parathyroid Glands:
- Hormone: PTH (Parathyroid Hormone)
- Function: Increases blood calcium levels
Thymus:
- Hormone: Thymosin
- Function: T cell maturation (immune system)
Adrenal Glands:
  - Cortex:
    - Hormones:
      - Cortisol: Stress response
      - Aldosterone: Sodium & water balance
      - Androgens: Sex hormones
  - Medulla:
    - Hormones:
      - Epinephrine, Norepinephrine: Fight-or-flight response
Pancreatic Islets:
  - Hormones:
    - Insulin: Lowers blood glucose
    - Glucagon: Raises blood glucose
Gonads:
- Testes: Testosterone
- Ovaries: Estrogen & Progesterone

Hormones from Non-classical Endocrine Glands

Kidneys:
- Erythropoietin: Stimulates RBC production - Calcitriol: Active Vitamin D - Renin: Blood pressure regulation

Hormonal Action on Target Cells

Water-Soluble Hormones:
  - Bind to receptors on cell membrane
  - Use second messengers
  - Fast-acting
Lipid-Soluble Hormones:
  - Pass through cell membrane
  - Bind inside cell
  - Directly affect DNA
  - Slower but longer-lasting effects

Regulation of Sensitivity to Circulating Hormones

Up-regulation: Increase receptors leading to a stronger response.
Down-regulation: Decrease receptors leading to a weaker response.
Signal Amplification: One hormone triggers many reactions.

Hormonal Interactions

Synergistic: Hormones work together for a stronger effect.
Permissive: One hormone allows another to work effectively.
Antagonistic: Hormones oppose each other.

Hormones Produced by Hypothalamus and Pituitary

Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal Portal System

TRH → TSH → Thyroid
CRH → ACTH → Adrenal Cortex
GnRH → FSH & LH → Ovaries and Testes
GHRH → GH → Liver, Bone, Cartilage, Muscle, Fat
PIH → Prolactin → Mammary Glands, Testes
Somatostatin [inhibits] GH & TSH

Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal Tract

ADH: Nerve fibers to Kidneys
Oxytocin: Nerve fibers to Uterus, Mammary Glands

Chapter 18 Study Guide Learning Outcomes

Functions of the Circulatory System

Hematology: Study of blood.
The circulatory system moves blood, nutrients, gases, hormones, and wastes throughout the body.
Components:   - Heart
  - Blood Vessels
  - Blood
  - Lymphatic System

Functions:

Transport: Oxygen, nutrients, hormones, wastes
Regulation: Body temperature, pH, fluid balance
Protection: Clotting and immunity

Blood Components and Properties

Blood = Plasma + Formed Elements

Plasma (Liquid Portion):

Contains: Water, Proteins, Nutrients, Hormones, Wastes

Formed Elements:

Erythrocytes (RBCs)
Leukocytes (WBCs)
Platelets

Blood Production

Hemopoiesis: Blood formation in red bone marrow.

Structure and Function of Erythrocytes (RBCs)

Structure: Biconcave discs, No nucleus, Packed with hemoglobin.
Function: Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Structure and Function of Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin: Protein in RBCs that carries oxygen using iron-containing heme.
Hematocrit: Percentage of blood made of RBCs.

Life History of Erythrocytes

Produced in bone marrow
Lives about 120 days
Broken down in spleen & liver
Hemoglobin recycled

Key Terms

Erythropoiesis: RBC production
Erythropoietin: Hormone stimulating RBC production
Bilirubin: Breakdown pigment
Transferrin: Transports iron
Ferritin: Stores iron

Types, Causes, and Effects of RBC Excesses and Deficiencies

Hypoxemia: Low oxygen in blood

Anemia Types:

Hypoplastic/Aplastic: Low RBC production
Hemorrhagic: Blood loss
Hemolytic: RBC destruction
Sickle Cell: Abnormal hemoglobin shape

ABO and Rh Blood Types

Blood Types (ABO & Rh): Determined by antigens on RBC surface.
Type A: A Antigens, anti-B antibodies
Type B: B Antigens, anti-A antibodies
Type AB: A & B Antigens, no antibodies
Type O: No antigens, anti-A & anti-B antibodies
Rh Factor: Rh+ has antigen; Rh- does not.
Agglutination: Clumping reaction if incompatible blood is mixed.

Rh Incompatibility

Occurs when Rh- mother carries Rh+ fetus → Hemolytic disease of newborn.

Function of Leukocytes

Leukocytes (WBCs): Immune defense
Types of Leukocytes:   - Granulocytes:
    - Neutrophils: Bacteria killers
    - Eosinophils: Parasites & allergies
    - Basophils: Inflammation & histamine
  - Agranulocytes:
    - Lymphocytes: B & T cells immunity
    - Monocytes: Become macrophages.

Types, Causes, and Effects of Leukocyte Excesses and Deficiencies

Leukopoiesis: WBC production
Leukopenia: Low WBC
Leukocytosis: High WBC
Leukemia: Cancer of blood cells

Hemostasis (Stopping Bleeding)

3 Steps:

Vasospasm (vessel constriction)
Platelet plug formation
Coagulation (clot formation)

Platelet Functions

Functions:
  - Platelet plug formation
  - Clotting activation
  - Vasoconstriction
  - Chemical release (attract more platelets)
  - Tissue repair (release growth factors for healing)

Blood Clotting Pathways

Intrinsic Pathway: - Slower, triggered by damage inside blood vessels, uses several clotting factors.
Extrinsic Pathway: - Faster, triggered by damage to surrounding tissue, uses tissue factor.

Clot Formation Steps

Vessel injury occurs
Platelets stick to damaged area
Clotting factors activate intrinsic or extrinsic pathway
Thrombin forms
Fibrin mesh forms
Stable clot stops bleeding

Blood Clots Post-Need

Clots dissolve when they are no longer needed.

Disorders and Nomenclature

Cyanosis: Bluish skin (low oxygen)
Hemochromatosis: Too much iron
Jaundice: Bilirubin buildup
Septicemia: Blood infection
Hemophilia: Clotting disorder
Thrombosis: Clot in vessel
Embolus: Moving clot

Chapter 19 Study Guide Learning Outcomes

Circulation Definitions

Pulmonary Circuit: Heart → Lungs → Heart.
Systemic Circuit: Heart → Body → Heart.

Heart Location, Size, and Shape

Heart located in the mediastinum.

Pericardial Sac Layers

Fibrous Pericardium
Parietal Layer
Visceral Layer (Epicardium)
Pericardial Fluid: Reduces friction.
Pericarditis: Inflammation.

Layers of the Heart Wall

Epicardium (outer)
Myocardium (muscle)
Endocardium (inner lining)

Fibrous Skeleton

Provides structural support.

Heart Chambers

Four Chambers:
  - Right Atrium
  - Right Ventricle
  - Left Atrium
  - Left Ventricle

Heart Valves

Atrioventricular (AV) Valves:
  - Right AV Valve (Tricuspid)
  - Left AV Valve (Bicuspid or Mitral)
  - Chordae Tendineae, Papillary Muscles
Semilunar Valves:
- Pulmonary Valve
- Aortic Valve

Blood Flow Through the Heart

Pathway:
- Superior/Inferior vena cava → Right Atrium → Tricuspid Valve → Right Ventricle → Pulmonary Valve → Pulmonary Arteries → Lungs → Pulmonary Veins → Left Atrium → Mitral Valve → Left Ventricle → Aortic Valve → Aorta → Body

Heart Energy Usage

The heart uses large amounts of ATP produced mainly through aerobic respiration using fatty acids and glucose, requiring a constant oxygen supply because cardiac muscle works continuously without resting.

Intercellular Junctions in Cardiac Muscle

Intercalated Discs: Connect cardiac muscle cells
  - Contain:
    - Desmosomes (hold cells together)
    - Gap Junctions (electrical communication)

Heart Pacemaker and Electrical Conduction System

SA Node: Pacemaker of the heart.
Electrical Pathway:
- SA Node → AV Node → Bundle of His → Bundle Branches → Purkinje Fibers

Nerve Supply to the Heart

Heart receives nerve supply from the autonomic nervous system:- - Sympathetic Nerves: Increase heart rate and force of contraction. - Parasympathetic Nerves (Vagus Nerve): Slow the heart, helping regulate cardiac output based on the body’s needs.

Normal Electrocardiogram Interpretation

ECG Components:
  - P wave: Atrial depolarization
  - QRS complex: Ventricular depolarization
  - ST segment: Ventricles fully activated
  - T wave: Ventricular repolarization.

Chapter 20 Study Guide Learning Outcomes

Structure of Blood Vessels

Lumen: Inside space.
Three Layers of Blood Vessels:
  - Tunica Interna
  - Tunica Media
  - Tunica Externa

Types of Blood Vessels

Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart
Capillaries: Exchange vessels
Veins: Carry blood to the heart
Metarterioles: Regulate flow to capillaries
Precapillary Sphincters: Control entry
Venous Sinuses: Large veins

Blood Flow Route

Pathway:
- Heart → Arteries → Arterioles → Capillaries → Venules → Veins → Heart
Portal System: Blood flows through two capillary beds.
Anastomoses: Provide alternate routes.

Types of Blood Flow

Laminar Flow (Normal):
- Smooth, orderly movement, fastest in the center of vessel, slowest near vessel walls.
Turbulent Flow:
- Irregular, chaotic movement, occurs with high speed or obstruction, may produce heart murmurs.

Cardiovascular Center Control

Location: Medulla oblongata of the brainstem.
Functions:
  - Regulates heart rate
  - Regulates blood pressure
  - Controls vasoconstriction and vasodilation.
Uses Input From:
- Baroreceptors (pressure sensors)
- Chemoreceptors (Oxygen, CO₂ levels)

Local, Neural, and Hormonal Influences on Vasomotion

Local Control: Controlled by tissue needs
- Example: Low oxygen → vasodilation.
Neural Control: Controlled by the sympathetic division of the nervous system.   - Effects:
    - Vasoconstriction during stress
    - Increases blood pressure
    - Redirects blood to muscles.
Hormonal Control: Hormones affect vessel diameter
  - Examples:
    - Epinephrine → Vasodilation in muscles
    - Norepinephrine → Vasoconstriction
    - Angiotensin II → Vasoconstriction
    - ANP → Vasodilation.

Materials Movement from Blood to Surrounding Tissues

Capillary Exchange Methods:

Diffusion:
- Most common method, movement from high → low concentration, oxygen and nutrients move into tissues, CO₂ and wastes move into blood.
Transcytosis:
- Transport in vesicles across cells, used for large molecules (proteins).
Bulk Flow:
  - Movement of fluid due to pressure differences;
    - Filtration: Fluid leaves capillary
    - Reabsorption: Fluid enters capillary

Types of Shock

Shock: Inadequate blood flow to tissues.

Hypovolemic Shock: Blood loss or dehydration.
Cardiogenic Shock: Heart unable to pump effectively.
Neurogenic Shock: Nervous system failure affecting vessel tone.
Septic Shock: Infection causes widespread vasodilation.
Anaphylactic Shock: Severe allergic reaction.

Types of Circulation

Systemic Circulation:
- Heart → Body → Heart.
Pulmonary Circulation:
- Heart → Lungs → Heart.
Coronary Circulation:
- Blood supply to heart muscle.
Portal Circulation:
- Blood passes through two capillary beds (Example: Hepatic portal system).
Fetal Circulation:
- Placenta supplies oxygen.

Principal Systemic Arteries and Veins (Axial Region)

Major Arteries:
  - Aorta
  - Carotid Arteries
  - Vertebral Arteries
  - Brachiocephalic Trunk
  - Thoracic Aorta
  - Abdominal Aorta
Major Veins:
  - Superior Vena Cava
  - Inferior Vena Cava
  - Jugular Veins
  - Brachiocephalic Veins
  - Hepatic Portal Vein

Principal Systemic Arteries and Veins (Limbs)

Upper Limb Arteries:
  - Subclavian Artery
  - Axillary Artery
  - Brachial Artery
  - Radial Artery
  - Ulnar Artery
Upper Limb Veins:
  - Cephalic Vein
  - Basilic Vein
  - Median Cubital Vein
Lower Limb Arteries:
  - Femoral Artery
  - Popliteal Artery
  - Anterior Tibial Artery
  - Posterior Tibial Artery
  - Dorsalis Pedis Artery
Lower Limb Veins:
  - Femoral Vein
  - Great Saphenous Vein
  - Small Saphenous Vein
  - Popliteal Vein

Disorders and Nomenclature

Aneurysm: Weak bulging artery wall
Atherosclerosis: Plaque buildup in arteries
Hypertension: High blood pressure
Hypotension: Low blood pressure
Thrombosis: Clot forms in vessel
Embolus: Traveling clot
Varicose Veins: Enlarged twisted veins
Phlebitis: Vein inflammation
Ischemia: Reduced blood flow.

Chapter 21 Study Guide Learning Outcomes

Functions of the Lymphatic System

Functions:
  - Network of organs and vein-like vessels that recover fluid
  - Inspect it for disease agents
  - Activate immune responses
  - Return fluid to the bloodstream.

Lymphatic Organs

Red Bone Marrow: Produces blood cells.
Thymus: T cell maturation.
Lymph Nodes: Filter lymph.
Tonsils: Trap pathogens.
Spleen: Filters blood.

Body's Lines of Defense Against Pathogens

1st Line: Skin & mucous membranes.
2nd Line: Inflammation & immune cells.
3rd Line: Adaptive immunity.

Defensive Functions of Leukocytes

Neutrophils: Most abundant WBC, first responders to infection, destroy bacteria by phagocytosis.
Eosinophils: Fight parasitic worms, involved in allergic reactions, release toxic chemicals.
Basophils: Release histamine, promote inflammation, involved in allergies.
Lymphocytes: Main cells of adaptive immunity; B cells produce antibodies, T cells attack infected cells, NK cells kill abnormal cells.
Monocytes: Become macrophages, perform phagocytosis, clean up dead cells and pathogens.

Role of the Complement System in Immunity

Complement system enhances inflammation, attracts immune cells, destroys pathogens by forming membrane attack complexes (MAC), and helps antibodies work more effectively.

Inflammation Process

Tissue damage occurs.
Mast cells release histamine.
Blood vessels dilate.
WBCs move to the damaged area.
Pathogens are destroyed.
Tissue repair begins.

Cardinal Signs of Inflammation

Redness → Increased blood flow.
Heat → Increased circulation.
Swelling → Fluid accumulation.
Pain → Chemical irritation of nerves.
Loss of function → Tissue damage.

Definitions of Adaptive Immunity

Specific defense developed after exposure to pathogens characterized by specificity to antigen, lymphocyte involvement, memory, and a stronger response upon re-exposure.

Cellular vs. Humoral Immunity

Cellular Immunity: - Carried out by T cells. - Attacks infected or abnormal body cells directly.
- Important for viruses and cancer cells.
Humoral Immunity:
- Carried out by B cells. - Produces antibodies that circulate in blood and lymph targeting bacteria and toxins.

Active vs. Passive Immunity

Active Immunity: Body produces its antibodies. - Natural Active: Immunity after infection. - Artificial Active: Immunity from vaccination.
Passive Immunity: Antibodies come from another source. - Natural Passive: Antibodies from mother (placenta or breast milk). - Artificial Passive: Antibody injections.

Development of T and B Lymphocytes

Both originate in red bone marrow.
T Cells: Mature in thymus, responsible for cellular immunity.
B Cells: Mature in bone marrow, responsible for humoral immunity.

Types of Lymphocytes in Cellular Immunity

Cytotoxic T Cells (Tc Cells): Directly kills infected or abnormal cells.
Helper T Cells (Th Cells): Activate B cells and cytotoxic T cells, coordinate immune response.
Regulatory T Cells (Treg Cells): Suppress immune response, prevent autoimmune disease.
Memory T Cells: Remember pathogens, allow faster secondary response.

Humoral Immunity Response Mechanism

Primary Immune Response:
- First time antigen enters, specific B cell recognizes it, B cells divide into plasma cells (produce antibodies) and memory B cells (store information about antigen).
- Slow response with fewer antibodies.
Secondary Immune Response:
- Occurs when the same antigen enters again; memory B cells recognize antigen immediately; rapid production of antibodies; faster and stronger response.

Effects of Immune Hypersensitivity

Immune Hypersensitivity: Excessive or abnormal immune response to usually harmless substances, causing tissue damage and inflammation.
Common Triggers: Pollens, foods, medications, insect stings.

Anaphylaxis and Related Reactions

Anaphylaxis: Severe allergic reaction caused by sudden widespread release of histamine; causes swelling, difficulty breathing, low blood pressure; can be life-threatening.
Local Anaphylaxis: Reaction occurs in one area of the body (mild symptoms).
Anaphylactic Shock: Severe reaction affecting the entire body; requires immediate treatment.

Immune System Disorders

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome): Caused by HIV, weakening the immune system; spread through blood, sexual contact, shared needles, breast milk, placenta.
Infectious Mononucleosis (Mono): Caused by Epstein–Barr virus; infects B lymphocytes; symptoms include swollen lymph nodes, fatigue, sore throat, fever.
Lymphomas: Cancers affecting lymph nodes or lymphatic organs. - Hodgkin's Disease: Characterized by painless enlarged lymph nodes. - Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (NHL): Larger group, may cause enlarged spleen, anemia.
Hypersensitivity (Allergies): Excessive immune reactions to harmless substances.

Types of Hypersensitivity Reactions

Type I: Anaphylactic/immediate; common allergies caused by IgE antibodies.
Type II: Cytotoxic; antibodies attack body cells (e.g., blood transfusion reactions).
Type III: Immune-complex; antigen-antibody complexes accumulate in tissues (e.g., autoimmune diseases).
Type IV: Delayed, cell-mediated; caused by T cells (e.g., poison ivy reaction).

Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)

Rare genetic disorder; both B cells and T cells do not function properly; results in extremely weak immune system.

Reye Syndrome

Disorder in children after viral infection; causes brain swelling; associated with aspirin use in children.

COVID-19

Caused by SARS-CoV-2 virus; affects multiple systems, causing strong inflammatory responses.

Lymphedema

Swelling due to blockage of lymphatic drainage; results in fluid accumulation in tissues.

Pathology of AIDS

HIV progressively destroys the immune system, particularly helper T cells, leading to severe immunodeficiency allowing opportunistic infections.
Spread through contact with infected bodily fluids.

Chapter 22 Study Guide Learning Outcomes

Functions of the Respiratory System

Gas Exchange: O₂ enters blood; CO₂ leaves blood.
Acid-Base Balance: Controls blood pH by removing CO₂.
Communication: Speech and vocalization.
Olfaction: Sense of smell.
Blood Pressure Regulation: Helps produce angiotensin II.
Blood Filtration: Lungs remove small blood clots.
Platelet Production: Lungs produce many platelets.
Blood & Lymph Flow: Breathing helps move fluids.
Assists Abdominal Pressure: Aids in urination, defecation, childbirth.

Organs of the Respiratory System

Upper Respiratory Tract:
- Nose: Warms, moistens, and filters air; aids smell detection and voice resonance. - Nasal Cavity: Lined with mucous membrane; contains nasal conchae. - Pharynx: Connects nasal cavity to larynx; subdivided into nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx. - Larynx: Prevents food entering airway, produces sound; structures include epiglottis, vestibular folds, vocal cords.
Lower Respiratory Tract:
Trachea: Connects larynx to bronchi; supported by C-shaped cartilage rings.
Bronchial Tree: Primary bronchi → lobar bronchi → segmental bronchi → bronchioles → terminal bronchioles.
Lungs:
  - Right Lung: 3 lobes
  - Left Lung: 2 lobes
  - Contains bronchopulmonary segments
Alveoli: Small air sacs where gas exchange occurs with type I & II alveolar cells and macrophages.

Structure-Function Relationship in the Respiratory Tract

Nasal conchae increase surface area for warming air.
Tracheal cartilage prevents airway collapse.
Thin alveolar walls allow for rapid gas exchange.
Surfactant reduces surface tension, preventing alveolar collapse.
Large alveolar surface area improves oxygen diffusion.

Muscles of Respiration

Inhalation Muscles:
- Diaphragm: Contracts and flattens to expand lungs. - External Intercostals: Lift ribs. - Accessory Muscles: Sternocleidomastoid, scalenes, pectoralis minor for deep breathing.
Exhalation Muscles:
- Normal exhalation is passive (elastic recoil); forced exhalation involves internal intercostals and abdominal muscles.

Brainstem Centers for Breathing Control

Medullary Respiratory Center (MRC): Controls basic breathing rhythm; includes DRG (Dorsal Respiratory Group) for inhalation, and VRG (Ventral Respiratory Group) for active breathing.
Pontine Respiratory Group: Modifies breathing patterns.

Airflow Resistance Sources

Airway Diameter: Smaller diameter increases resistance.
Surface Tension of Alveolar Fluid.
Lung Elasticity (Compliance).
Mucus Buildup.

Breathing Deviations

Apnea: Temporary stop of breathing.
Tachypnea: Rapid breathing.
Hyperpnea: Deep breathing.
Wheeze: High-pitched airway sound.
Rales: Abnormal crackling sound.
Asphyxia: Oxygen deprivation.
Aspiration: Inhaling foreign material.

Comparison of Inspired and Alveolar Air

Inspired Air: Higher in oxygen, lower in carbon dioxide.
Alveolar Air: Lower in oxygen, higher in carbon dioxide, humidified air.

Gas Exchange Factors

Alveolar surface area.
Thickness of respiratory membrane.
Oxygen concentration differences.
Carbon dioxide concentration differences.
Diffusion rate of gases (CO₂ diffuses faster than O₂).

Effects of Oxygen Deficiency and Excess

Oxygen Deficiency: Causes tissue damage and breathing difficulty.
Oxygen Excess: Can damage tissues and disrupt cell function.

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases (COPD)

COPD: Airway obstruction caused by smoking, air pollution, infections, genetic factors.
Emphysema: Destruction of alveoli, reducing gas exchange surface area.

Lung Cancer

Begins with uncontrolled cell growth in lungs, usually caused by smoking and toxins.
Effects include airway compression, reduced airflow, metastasis, and collapsed lung (atelectasis).
Common types: squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, small-cell carcinoma (most dangerous).

Respiratory Disorders and Nomenclature

Asphyxia: Oxygen deprivation.
Aspiration: Inhaling foreign substances.
Hyperpnea: Deep breathing.
Rales: Abnormal lung sounds.
Rhinitis: Inflammation of nasal lining.
Apnea: Temporary stop of breathing.
Sputum: Mucus coughed up.
Respiratory Arrest: Breathing stops.
Tachypnea: Rapid breathing.
Wheeze: High-pitched airway sound.
Asthma: Chronic airway inflammation, leading to narrowed bronchioles and excess mucus blocking airflow.
COPD: Chronic airway blockage and emphysema (alveoli destroyed).
Pneumonia: Infection of alveoli.
Tuberculosis: Bacterial lung infection.
Pulmonary Edema: Fluid accumulation in lungs.
SARS: Viral respiratory infection.
Lung Cancer: Uncontrolled cell growth in lungs.

Chapter 23 Study Guide Learning Outcomes

Organs of the Urinary System

Major Organs:
  - Kidney
  - Urinary Bladder
  - Urethra
  - Ureter

Functions of the Urinary System

Filter blood and excrete toxic metabolic wastes.
Regulate blood volume, pressure, and osmolarity.
Regulate electrolytes and acid-base balance.
Secrete erythropoietin to stimulate red blood cells production.
Regulate calcium levels by participating in calcitriol synthesis.
Clear hormones from blood.
Detoxify free radicals.
Synthesize glucose from amino acids in starvation.

Major Nitrogenous Wastes

Urea: From protein breakdown.
Uric Acid: From nucleic acid breakdown.
Creatine: From muscle metabolism.

Kidney Structure

Protective Layers:
- Renal Fascia: Anchors kidney. - Perirenal Fat Capsule: Cushions kidney. - Fibrous Capsule: Maintains shape.
Internal Structures:
- Renal Cortex: Outer layer. - Renal Medulla: Inner layer. - Renal Pyramids: Triangular structures in medulla. - Renal Columns: Cortex tissue between pyramids. - Renal Sinus: Cavity inside kidney. - Renal Pelvis: Collects urine. - Renal Hilum: Entry/exit site for vessels and ureter. - Nephrons: Functional units producing urine.

Blood Flow Through the Kidney

Renal Artery
Segmental Artery
Interlobar Artery
Arcuate Artery
Cortical Radiate Artery
Afferent Arteriole
Glomerulus
Efferent Arteriole
Peritubular Capillaries
Cortical Radiate Vein
Arcuate Vein
Interlobar Vein
Renal Vein

Fluid Flow Through Renal Tubules

Glomerular Capsule
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
Nephron Loop (Loop of Henle)
Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
Collecting Duct
Papillary Duct
Renal Pelvis
Ureter

Nerve Supply to the Kidney

Sympathetic Innervation: From renal plexus.
Functions:
  - Regulates renal blood flow
  - Adjusts filtration rate
  - Stimulates renin release when blood pressure is low
  - Causes vasoconstriction.

Blood Plasma Filtration Process

Glomerular Filtration: Movement of water and solutes from blood into glomerular capsule.
Tubular Reabsorption: Useful substances returning to blood, including water, glucose, amino acids, and ions.
Tubular Secretion: Wastes added to the tubule, including hydrogen ions, drugs, toxins, and potassium.

Forces That Promote/Oppose Filtration

Blood Hydrostatic Pressure (BHP): Driving force behind filtration (≈ 60 mmHg).
Capsular Pressure (CP): Driving force against filtration (≈ 18 mmHg).
Colloid Osmotic Pressure (COP): Driving force against filtration (≈ 32 mmHg).
Net Filtration Pressure (NFP):
- NFP = BHP - (CP + COP)
- Example: 60 - (18 + 32) = 10 mmHg.

Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)

Normal GFR:
- Males: ≈ 125 mL/min
- Females: ≈ 105 mL/min
Effects of GFR:
- Too High: Renal tubules can't reabsorb water and solutes; urine output increases, risking dehydration and electrolyte depletion. - Too Low: Wastes are reabsorbed leading to azotemia.

Regulation of Filtration by Nervous System and Hormones

Renal Autoregulation:
- Kidneys adjust their own blood flow using mechanisms like myogenic feedback and tubuloglomerular feedback.

Sympathetic Control

Sympathetic Nervous System: Norepinephrine causes vasoconstriction, reducing GFR during stress or blood loss.

Hormonal Regulation (RAAS)

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS):
Angiotensin II Effects:
  - Increases blood pressure
  - Stimulates aldosterone and ADH release
  - Increases thirst.

Nephron Water Excretion Regulation

Nephron Loop: Controls water and salt concentration.
Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT): Adjusts electrolyte balance.
Hormones: - Aldosterone: Increases sodium and water reabsorption. - ADH: Increases water reabsorption, producing concentrated urine. - Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP): Increases urine production, decreasing blood pressure.

Functional Anatomy of Ureters, Bladder, and Urethra

Ureters: Transport urine from kidneys to bladder.
Urinary Bladder:
  - Layers:
  - Mucosa: Transitional epithelium, stretches.
  - Detrusor Muscle: Contracts to expel urine.   - Adventitia: Connective tissue support.
Female Urethra: Shorter, opens between clitoris and vaginal opening.
Male Urethra: Three regions - prostatic, membranous, and penile urethra.

Voiding Control Mechanisms

Stretch Receptors: Detect bladder filling; signals sent to spinal cord (S2–S3).
Parasympathetic Nerves: Contract detrusor muscle, relax internal urethral sphincter.
External Urethral Sphincter: Voluntary control; urinary incontinence = loss of bladder control.

Renal Disorders and Nomenclature

Renal Calculus (Kidney Stones): Solid crystals of calcium or uric acid; may block ureter causing pain.
Polyuria: Excessive urine production.
Anuria: Little or no urine production.
Glucosuria: Glucose in urine (often diabetes).
Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Microbial infection causing burning urination, fever, frequent urination.
Cystitis: Bladder infection.
Pyelitis: Infection of renal pelvis.
Pyelonephritis: Kidney infection affecting nephrons.
Renal Insufficiency: Inability to maintain homeostasis due to hypertension, infections, trauma, low oxygen, or atherosclerosis.
Renal Failure: Loss of kidney function, either acute (sudden) or chronic (gradual).
Uremia: Toxic urea buildup in blood.
Urinary Retention: Inability to empty bladder.
Hemodialysis: Machine filters blood when kidneys fail.

Chapter 24 Study Guide Learning Outcomes

Major Fluid Compartments and Water Movement

Body Fluids: Make up 55–60% of body weight.
Fluid Compartments:
- Intracellular Fluid (ICF): Fluid inside cells; about 65% of body fluid.
- Extracellular Fluid (ECF): Fluid outside cells; about 35% of body fluid, including interstitial fluid, blood plasma, lymph, and transcellular fluid.

Water Movement

Water moves by osmosis from areas of low solute concentration to high solute concentration.
Osmolarity: Concentration of dissolved particles; electrolytes help control water movement.

Sources of Water and Routes of Water Loss

Sources of Water Gain:
  - Drinking liquids
  - Water in food
  - Metabolic water produced during metabolism (total daily intake ≈ 2500 mL).
Routes of Water Loss:
  - Urine (kidneys)
  - Sweat
  - Water vapor in breath
  - Feces
  - Skin evaporation (cutaneous transpiration).
Types of Water Loss:
  - Insensible Loss: Not noticeable (breathing, skin)
  - Sensible Loss: Noticeable (urine, sweat)
  - Obligatory Loss: Unavoidable loss.

Mechanisms of Regulating Water Intake and Output

Thirst Mechanism: Controlled by thirst center in hypothalamus, stimulated by dehydration, low blood volume, increased osmolarity, angiotensin II, dry mouth, and osmoreceptors.
Hormonal Regulation of Water Balance:
  - ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone): Main hormone regulating water balance. Released when osmolarity increases, causing kidneys to reabsorb more water and produce less urine. When osmolarity decreases, less ADH is released, causing more urine production.
  - Aldosterone: Increases sodium reabsorption, leading to water retention.
  - Angiotensin II: Raises blood pressure and stimulates thirst.
  - ANP (Atrial Natriuretic Peptide): Increases urine output, decreases blood volume and pressure.

Conditions of Water Deficiency or Excess

Fluid Deficiency: - Hypovolemia: Loss of water and sodium due to hemorrhage, burns, vomiting, diarrhea, or Addison disease. - Dehydration: Loss of more water than solutes due to low water intake, diabetes mellitus, diabetes insipidus (low ADH), or excessive sweating.
Fluid Excess: - Volume Excess: Too much sodium and water retained due to renal failure or aldosterone excess. - Hypotonic Hydration: Too much water retained compared to sodium, leading to cell swelling.

Physiological Roles of Electrolytes

Sodium (Na⁺): Main extracellular cation controlling water balance, nerve impulses, and muscle contraction; regulated by aldosterone, ADH, and natriuretic peptides.
Potassium (K⁺): Major intracellular cation important for nerve impulses and muscle contraction; imbalances may cause cardiac arrest (hyperkalemia) or muscle weakness (hypokalemia).
Calcium (Ca²⁺): Essential for bone strength, muscle contraction, blood clotting, neurotransmitter release, and hormone signaling; imbalances lead to hypercalcemia or hypocalcemia.
Chloride (Cl⁻): Main extracellular anion maintaining osmotic balance and forming stomach acid; imbalances include hypochloremia and hyperchloremia.
Phosphate (PO₄³⁻): Part of ATP, energy metabolism, buffer system, and DNA/RNA structure; regulated by parathyroid hormone (PTH).

Hormonal and Renal Regulation of Electrolyte Concentrations

Hormones Regulating Electrolytes:
  - Aldosterone: Increases Na⁺ reabsorption and K⁺ secretion.
  - ADH: Increases water retention.
  - ANP: Increases sodium excretion.
  - PTH: Increases calcium levels and decreases phosphate levels.
  - Angiotensin II: Increases blood pressure and stimulates aldosterone release.
Kidneys Regulating Electrolytes: Through filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.

Buffer Systems

Buffers: Prevent major changes in pH.
  - Bicarbonate Buffer System: Most important buffer in blood:
    - CO₂ + H₂O ⇄ H₂CO₃ ⇄ HCO₃⁻ + H⁺
    - Regulates blood pH.   - Phosphate Buffer System: Important in intracellular fluid and urine; regulates kidney acid excretion.   - Protein Buffer System: Proteins bind hydrogen ions; hemoglobin acts as a buffer in blood.

Types and Causes of pH Imbalances

Normal Blood pH Range: 7.35 – 7.45.
- Acidosis: pH below 7.35; causes confusion, nervous system depression, coma, or death. - Alkalosis: pH above 7.45; causes overactive nervous system, muscle spasms, or convulsions.

Types of Acidosis and Alkalosis

Respiratory Acidosis: Caused by excess CO₂ (hypoventilation, lung disease).
Respiratory Alkalosis: Caused by low CO₂ (hyperventilation, anxiety).
Metabolic Acidosis: Caused by low bicarbonate (diabetes mellitus, kidney disease, diarrhea).
Metabolic Alkalosis: Caused by excess bicarbonate (vomiting, antacid overuse).

Chapter 25 Study Guide Learning Outcomes

Functions and Physiological Processes of the Digestive System

Functions:
  - Ingestion: Intake of food
  - Digestion: Breakdown of food
  - Absorption: Nutrients enter blood or lymph
  - Compaction: Water removal and feces formation
  - Defecation: Elimination of feces.

Mechanical vs Chemical Digestion

Mechanical Digestion: Physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces
- Examples: Chewing by teeth, mixing by tongue, churning in stomach, intestinal mixing.
Chemical Digestion: Breakdown of food molecules by enzymes
  - Examples:
    - Carbohydrates → Sugars
    - Proteins → Amino Acids
    - Fats → Fatty Acids
    - Nucleic Acids → Nucleotides
Occurs in: Mouth, stomach, small intestine.

Digestive Tract Layers

Mucosa: Inner layer; contains epithelium, lamina propria, muscularis mucosae; secretes mucus and enzymes.
Submucosa: Connective tissue containing blood vessels, nerves, glands.
Muscularis Externa: Inner circular layer and outer longitudinal layer, produces peristalsis (movement of food).
Serosa: Outer protective layer.

Neural and Chemical Control of Digestive Function

Enteric Nervous System: Network of nerves in digestive tract controlling motility, secretion of digestive juices, and blood flow, consisting of submucosal plexus and myenteric plexus, can function independently of CNS.

Composition and Functions of Saliva

Contains: Water, mucus, salivary amylase (digests starch), lingual lipase (begins fat digestion), lysozyme (antibacterial enzyme).
Functions:
  - Moistens food
  - Begins digestion
  - Helps swallowing
  - Cleans mouth.
Produced by: Parotid glands, submandibular glands, sublingual glands.

Anatomy of the Stomach

Functions:
  - Stores food
  - Mixes food
  - Begins protein digestion
  - Forms chyme.
Regions:
  - Cardiac region
  - Fundus
  - Body
  - Pyloric region.

Muscle Layers of the Stomach

Longitudinal layer, circular layer, oblique layer; allows strong churning.
Gastric Pits: Depressions in mucosa containing gastric glands that increase surface area, producing gastric juice.

Functions of Stomach Cells

Mucous Cells: Secrete mucus to protect stomach lining.
Parietal Cells: Secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factor (for vitamin B12 absorption).
Chief Cells: Secrete pepsinogen and gastric lipase (digests fats).
Enteroendocrine Cells: Secrete hormones regulating digestion.
Regenerative Cells: Replace damaged stomach cells.

Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Secretions

Liver: Largest gland; produces bile, processes nutrients, detoxifies drugs and toxins, stores vitamins and glycogen, produces blood proteins.
Gallbladder: Stores and concentrates bile; releases bile into small intestine, contains bile salts, cholesterol, bilirubin, and aids fat digestion.
Pancreas: Both endocrine and exocrine gland; pancreatic juice contains bicarbonate (neutralizes stomach acid), pancreatic amylase (digests starch), pancreatic lipase (digests fat), nucleases (digest DNA/RNA), and proteases (digest protein); released into duodenum.

Functions of the Colon

Colon Functions:
  - Absorbs water
  - Absorbs electrolytes
  - Forms feces
  - Houses bacteria
  - Stores waste before elimination.
Structures:
  - Cecum
  - Ascending Colon
  - Transverse Colon
  - Descending Colon
  - Sigmoid Colon
  - Rectum
  - Anal Canal.
Taenia Coli: Create pouch-like haustra.
Appendix: May have immune role.

Neurological Control of Defecation

Defecation Reflex:
- Intrinsic Reflex: Controlled by enteric nervous system, stimulates peristalsis and relaxation of internal anal sphincter. - Parasympathetic Reflex: Involves spinal cord, increases peristalsis and relaxes internal sphincter. - Voluntary Control: External anal sphincter is controlled by skeletal muscle; relaxation allows defecation.