AP-US-Government-and-Politics-Study-Guide

Key Exam Details

  • The AP U.S. Government and Politics exam assesses knowledge typically covered in a one-semester introductory college course.
  • The 3-hour exam includes:
    • 55 multiple-choice questions (50% of the exam).
    • 4 free-response questions (50% of the exam).
  • Exam Topics:
    • Foundations of American Democracy: 15–22% of test questions.
    • Civil Liberties and Civil Rights: 13–18% of test questions.
    • Interactions Between Branches of Government: 25–36% of test questions.
    • Political Participation: 20–27% of test questions.
    • American Political Beliefs and Ideologies: 10–15% of test questions.

Foundations of American Democracy

  • Covers about 15–22% of the AP exam questions.

Types of Democracy

  • Direct Democracy:
    • Citizens directly govern and make laws.
    • Considered chaotic and inefficient, especially in large populations.
    • Risks include the majority violating minority rights.
  • Participatory Democracy:
    • Values broad-based public participation in governing.
    • Keeps government close to the people and their opinions.
  • Representative Democracy/Republicanism:
    • Citizens elect representatives who govern for them.
    • More efficient system for decision-making.
    • Retains public participation while making governing less chaotic.
  • Elite Democracy/Elitism:
    • Best educated and qualified members of society govern.
    • Favors a small group of well-informed people in government.
  • Majoritarian Democracy:
    • Promotes majority rule.
    • Places power in the hands of the majority.
    • Values efficiency and decisive elections.
    • Critics argue majorities may violate minority rights without safeguards.
    • Winner-take-all elections can lead to zero-sum game politics.
  • Consensus Democracy:
    • Promotes sharing of power across diverse groups.
    • Power is dispersed, requiring compromise.
    • Critics argue it is inefficient and creates hurdles to decision-making.

Founding Documents

  • The Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776):
    • Declared the British Colonies in North America as free and independent.
    • Authored by Thomas Jefferson, it relies on Natural Rights, Popular Sovereignty, and Social Contract Theory.
    • Argues former colonies can create their own government due to abuses under British rule.
    • Natural Rights:
      • Rights that exist in a "state of nature."
      • John Locke proposed three basic rights: life, liberty, and property.
      • These are "negative" rights, restricting others from infringing upon them.
    • Popular Sovereignty:
      • People are the highest level of power in society.
      • Government's power comes from the consent of the governed, granting legitimacy.
    • Social Contract Theory:
      • People consent to be governed in exchange for protections and public goods.
      • Proposed by Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan.
      • Supports constitutional governments because constitutions are a form of social contract.
  • The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union:
    • The United States’ first constitution, created on November 15, 1777.
    • Established the first national government for the United States.
    • Relied on John Locke’s theory of natural rights and limited government roles.
    • Gave the country its name: The United States of America.
    • Confederation:
      • Smaller government units (states) are sovereign.
      • States empower the national government with limited tasks.
      • Borrowed from Native Americans.
  • Structure of the National Government Under the Articles of Confederation:
    • One branch: Congress.
    • Equal representation from each state.
    • Laws passed with a super-majority.
    • Congress's Powers: create currency, borrow money, declare war, raise an army, establish foreign relations.
  • Failures of the Articles of Confederation:
    • No executive branch.
    • No national judiciary.
    • No power to tax.
    • No power to compel states to obey laws or contribute funding.
    • No power not "expressly delegated."
    • The national government lacked tools to execute powers properly.
    • States failed to meet responsibilities.
    • The nation suffered an economic depression and dysfunction.
  • Shays’ Rebellion:
    • Uprising in western Massachusetts protesting economic conditions and high taxes.
    • Led by Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays.
    • Demonstrated the weakness of the national government under the Articles.
    • Congress was unable to fund an army to suppress the rebellion.
    • Led to calls for a constitutional convention.
  • The Constitution of the United States:
    • A constitutional convention was called in the summer of 1787 to fix the Articles of Confederation.
    • Abandoned the system of Confederation for a system of federalism.
    • The national government and state governments share powers.
    • The national government has significantly more powers.
    • The Virginia Plan (large states) proposed a Congress with two houses based on representation.
    • The New Jersey Plan (small states) proposed a Congress with one house based on equal representation from each state.
    • The Three-Fifths Compromise:
      • Free persons counted as a whole person, and slaves counted as three-fifths of a person.
      • Non-slaveholding states agreed not to regulate the slave trade prior to 1808.
    • The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise):
      • Created a bicameral (two-house) legislature.
      • The House of Representatives is based on population.
      • The Senate is based on equal representation from each state.
      • Separation of powers divides the national government into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.
      • Each branch has specific powers that cannot be exercised by other branches.
      • Checks and balances give each branch powers over the other branches.
        • Congress can impeach and remove officers.
        • The executive branch has law enforcement power and commands the military.
        • The judicial branch can interpret law and the Constitution.
      • The Constitution relies heavily on republicanism and less on participatory democracy.
        • Only the House of Representatives is directly elected by the people.
        • Senators were initially appointed by state legislatures.
        • The President is elected by the Electoral College.
        • The Electoral College places a buffer between the people and the presidency.
        • Originally, electors may or may not have voted with the people.
        • Electors are chosen by their political parties and typically vote for the popular vote winner in their state.
        • There can be "faithless electors."
      • The national government has enumerated and implied powers.
        • Enumerated powers are specifically listed in the Constitution.
        • Implied powers are not specifically mentioned but are implied in the constitutional text.
        • Implied powers allow the government to execute enumerated powers.

Constitutional Structure

  • The Constitution is separated into seven articles.
  • Article I:
    • Created the Congress and legislative branch.
    • The House of Representatives is based on population.
      • Each state is guaranteed at least one representative.
      • Currently 435 seats in the House.
      • A member must be at least 25 years old, a U.S. citizen, and reside in the state they represent.
      • Members are elected every two years.
      • The House is closest to the people and most subject to public opinion.
      • The Speaker of the House is the most powerful person in Congress.
      • The Speaker leads the House and is selected by its members.
      • The Census requires a population count every 10 years to apportion representation.
      • Each member represents approximately 700,000 people.
      • The House has the power of impeachment.
      • All bills raising taxes must originate in the House.
    • The United States Senate has two representatives from each state.
      • Senators were initially selected by state legislatures but are now elected by the people after the Seventeenth Amendment.
      • Senators serve terms of six years.
      • The Senate is divided into three classes, with one-third up for election every two years.
      • To serve as senator, one must be at least 30 years old, a citizen of the United States, and a resident of the state they represent.
      • The Vice President presides over the Senate but has no vote unless there’s a tie.
      • The Senate tries all impeachments by the House.
      • When the impeachment is of the president, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presides over the trial.
    • Powers of Congress (Article I, Section 8):
      • Tax.
      • Regulate commerce.
      • Regulate immigration.
      • Coin money and regulate its value.
      • Create the post office.
      • Create patents.
      • Create all courts below the Supreme Court.
      • Declare war.
      • Create the army.
      • Create the navy.
      • Directly govern Washington, DC.
      • Make all laws necessary and proper to execute enumerated powers.
  • Article II:
    • Created the executive branch and the presidency.
    • The president and vice president are elected to terms of 4 years by the Electoral College.
    • Electoral votes are assigned by adding the number of representatives apportioned to the state plus the two senators.
    • To be president, a person must be a natural-born citizen of the United States and at least 35 years of age.
    • The president must take an oath prescribed by the Constitution.
    • The president is commander in chief of the army, Navy, and state militias.
    • They have the power to create treaties, which must be ratified by a two-thirds vote in the Senate.
    • The president can appoint officials to the executive and judicial branches, but appointments must be confirmed by the Senate.
    • The president can pardon convictions of federal law and commute sentences, except in cases of impeachment.
    • The president, vice president, and all members of the executive and judicial branches can be impeached for treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.
    • If convicted by the Senate, they shall be removed from office.
    • The president is required to give Congress an update on the state of the union.
  • Article III:
    • Created the judicial branch and the Supreme Court.
    • There are 93 District Courts, 13 Circuit Courts of Appeals, and one Supreme Court.
      • The Supreme Court consists of eight Associate Justices and one Chief Justice.
      • The Supreme Court and lower courts have “judicial power,” interpreted as the power of judicial review in Marbury v. Madison.
      • Only the courts can interpret the law and the Constitution.
      • Persons appointed to the federal judiciary have lifetime terms.
      • The Supreme Court has original and appellate jurisdiction.
      • Certain cases involving states, ambassadors, and executive branch officials can be taken directly to the Supreme Court under original jurisdiction.
      • Most cases make their way to the court under appeal or appellate jurisdiction.
    • Article III, Section 3 defines treason.
  • Article IV:
    • Expands on the idea of federalism.
    • States owe to each other, and what the national government owes to the states.
    • Full faith and credit shall be given to public records, acts, and judicial proceedings of each state.
    • Citizens of the United States shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in every state.
    • Describes the process for admitting new states to the union.
    • Prohibits forming a new state by using part of a current state or combining two states unless approved by both state legislatures and Congress.
    • The United States shall guarantee each state a republican form of government.
  • Article V:
    • Provides two methods for amending the Constitution.
      • Bills passed by two-thirds of each house of Congress or by convention of the states.
      • The Constitution can be amended by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress, and then ratification by three-fourths of state legislatures.
      • The Constitution can also be amended by two-thirds of state legislatures petitioning to create a constitutional convention.
      • Amendments proposed by the convention must be ratified by three-fourths of the state legislatures.
  • Article VI:
    • Guaranteed the debt of the United States that was taken on under the articles of Confederation.
    • Section 2 states that the Constitution, federal law, and treaties shall be the “supreme law of the land.”
    • The Constitution and federal law supersede state law and state constitutions when federal laws are exercised appropriately.
  • Article VII:
    • Set forth the ratification process.
    • Required 9 of 13 states to ratify the Constitution for it to take effect.

Ratification Campaign

  • Federalists favored ratification, while Anti-Federalists opposed.
  • Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay authored The Federalist Papers to explain the Constitution.
    • Federalist #10: Madison described how a republican government combined with separation of powers can control government and officials.
      • Government is separated to prevent any one branch or person from becoming despotic.
      • Factions are controlled because they are either too small to be despotic or limited by the structure of government.
    • Federalist #78: Alexander Hamilton described the judicial branch.
      • The judicial branch is the least threatening because it only has judgment, not the power of the sword or the purse.
  • Anti-Federalists published articles under the name Brutus, warning that the new government was too powerful and far removed from the people.
    • Brutus preferred government power to be kept in the states.
    • Subsidiarity: the lowest level of government capable of performing a task should be the one to perform it.

Civil Liberties and Civil Rights

  • Covers around 13–18% of the AP exam questions.
  • The first ten amendments to the Constitution are known as the Bill of Rights.
    • Made as a compromise between Federalists and Anti-Federalists.
    • Enumerates and protects certain rights of the people.
  • The First Amendment
    • Protects multiple rights, including free exercise of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of petition, and freedom of assembly.
    • Also contains the Establishment Clause, which created the separation of church and state.
    • Free Exercise Clause:
      • Guarantees the right to follow the religion of your choice.
      • Freedom to believe is absolute, but actions can be regulated.
      • Regulation of religious practice is subject to debate.
      • Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972): Government must prove a compelling interest pursued by the least restrictive means to limit free exercise.
      • This is also known as strict scrutiny, which places the burden of proof on government.
    • Establishment Clause:
      • Lemon v Kurtzman (1972): A law is constitutional if it has a secular legislative purpose, does not inhibit or advance religion, and does not create excessive entanglement between church and state (the Lemon Test).
      • Engel v. Vitale (1962): School-sponsored prayer in public schools violates the Establishment Clause.
    • Freedom of Speech:
      • Not an absolute freedom; some restrictions can be placed.
      • Time, place, and manner restrictions: Limit how the freedom of speech is exercised.
        • Examples: noise ordinances, march permits, and limits on protest locations.
      • Content restrictions: Attempt to limit the substance of what is being said.
        • Schenck v United States (1919): Speech that presents a “clear and present danger” can be prohibited (e.g., shouting “fire” in a crowded theater).
      • Tinker v. Des Moines (1969): Expressive acts, including wearing armbands in protest, are protected by the First Amendment, including by public school students.
      • Students do not surrender their rights at the schoolhouse door.
      • The court attempts to balance the right of free speech with the government’s responsibility to keep good order on a case-by-case basis.
    • Freedom of the Press:
      • Near v Minnesota: Prohibited “prior restraint” of the press (censorship), except in national security and wartime issues.
      • New York Times v. United States (1971): Courts proceed with a heavy assumption against prior restraint/censorship, even when the government claims national security matters.
  • The Second Amendment:
    • Protects citizens’ rights to keep and bear arms.
    • Interpreted by the Supreme Court as an individual right, unrelated to service in a state militia/National Guard.
    • District of Columbia v Heller (2008): A generalized ban on handguns violated the Second Amendment.
    • McDonald v. Chicago (2010): Applied the Second Amendment to state and local laws, protecting the individual right to keep and bear arms at the state level.
  • The Fourth Amendment:
    • Protects citizens against unreasonable searches and seizures.
    • Generally requires searches to be done with a warrant based upon probable cause.
    • The Supreme Court has allowed certain exceptions.
  • The Fourteenth Amendment:
    • Defines citizenship, protects the right of due process, and guarantees equal protection under the law.
    • Has been used to apply the Bill of Rights to the states (Selective Incorporation Doctrine).
    • Due Process Clause:
      • Protects citizens from arbitrary government action.
      • Has been used to support the right to privacy, an unenumerated right.
      • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Defendants have a right to a lawyer under the Due Process Clause.
    • Right to Privacy:
      • Touches on many areas of law, including government searches, personal relationships, abortion, healthcare, and Internet usage.
      • Summarized as “the right to be left alone.”
      • Roe v. Wade (1973):
        • The right to privacy extended to a woman's choice to end a pregnancy.
        • The trimester scheme balanced government power and the right to privacy.
          • First trimester: a woman has an absolute right to privacy.
          • Second trimester: the government can only regulate the safety of medical procedures.
          • Third trimester: the government can prohibit abortion, except when the life and health of a mother are at stake.
    • Equal Protection Clause:
      • Protects citizens from unequal treatment under the law.
      • Unequal treatment based on race is viewed as highly suspicious.
      • Brown v. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954): Racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional, overruling Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).
      • Segregation based on race is unconstitutional in public education and official government policy.
      • In affirmative action, race cannot be a primary factor in deciding who to admit to college or hire.
      • Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978): Affirmative action policies designed to diversify college admissions were permissible, but race could not be the primary factor.
  • Civil rights and equal treatment were extended to the private sector through civil rights legislation.
    • Civil Rights Act of 1964: Prohibits discrimination based on race and other factors in public accommodations.
    • Businesses cannot refuse to serve or employ people based on protected classes.
    • Voting Rights Act of 1965: Prohibits discrimination in voting, banning practices such as literacy tests.
    • Originally placed jurisdictions with a history of voting rights violations under “pre-clearance,” but this provision is not currently in effect.

Interactions Between Branches of Government

  • Covers 25–36% of questions on the AP exam.

Federalism

  • Government power is divided between the federal government and state governments.

  • Dual Federalism (Layer Cake Federalism):

    • State and federal power should be strictly divided.
    • No sharing of power or responsibility.
    • Also known as “states’ rights.”
    • Advantages: Allows states to experiment with policy and be more specific, and power is closest to the people.
    • Disadvantages: States cannot deal with problems that cross state lines, and state governments often lack resources.

  • Cooperative Federalism (Marble Cake Federalism):

    • The federal government and state governments should share power and responsibility.
    • Often gives more power to Congress and the national government.
    • Advantages: The federal government has jurisdiction throughout the country, massive resources, and provides citizens with multiple access points.
    • Disadvantages: Congress often makes policy that is not specific enough, and experimenting with policy at the national level can lead to side effects.

  • Supreme Court Views on Federalism:

    • McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): States cannot interfere when Congress legitimately exercises its powers.
      • Confirmed the existence of implied powers.
    • Lopez v. United States: The commerce power was not unlimited, and activities regulated under this power must have some relation to interstate commerce.
      • Recognized state sovereignty and local control.

Policy Making

  • Policy making in Congress is done mostly through the committee process.

  • Committees:

    • Groups of policy makers within Congress.
    • Specialize in certain areas of policy.
    • Divided into subcommittees.

  • Types of Committees:

    • Standing committees are permanent committees that concentrate on certain areas of policy.
    • Select committees are temporary committees for specific tasks that are disbanded when complete.
    • Select committees have taken on a more permanent presence recently.

  • Legislative Process:

    • New legislation is assigned to a committee and subcommittee by congressional leaders.
    • Committees investigate and gather evidence.
    • Legislation can be altered (amended) multiple times in committee.
    • The committee votes on the legislation.
    • If it receives sufficient support, it moves to the House or Senate.
    • Legislation can be further amended before a final vote.
    • Once approved by the House, it goes to the Senate, and vice versa.
    • All bills must contain the exact same language to be forwarded to the president.
    • The president can sign or veto the bill.

  • Conference Committee:

    • A temporary committee of House and Senate members.
    • Works out language differences between House and Senate versions of a bill.
    • Disbands once common language is agreed to.

  • Models of Representation:

    • Delegate Model: Representatives should vote with the will of the people of their district.
      • Representatives should not exercise independent judgment.
    • Trustee Model: Representatives should use their best judgment when voting for their districts.
      • Elected officials are trusted to do what is right for the citizens they represent.

  • Delegating Authority to the Executive Branch:

    • Congress may allow the executive branch to hire policy area experts to create rules and regulations.
    • This is because complex areas of policy need scientifically-based and technical rules.
    • Congress delegates using an “intelligible principle” or framework.
    • Congress can withdraw delegated authority or remove funding at any time.
    • Congress cannot create a veto process to approve executive rules (legislative veto), as it has been found to be unconstitutional.

Administrative Law

  • Rules created by the executive branch under delegated authority.

  • Independent Agencies:

    • Congress can create new independent agencies within the executive branch for administrative rulemaking, policing, and regulation.
    • Led by presidential appointees confirmed by the Senate.
    • Appointees are not subject to direct control by the president.
    • Empowered with quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial functions.
      • Quasi-legislative functions mimic the legislative branch and allow the agency to create new rules and regulations.
      • Quasi-judicial functions mimic the judiciary and allow the agency to decide if someone has acted inappropriately and provide punishment or corrective action.

  • Bureaucratic Capture:

    • A troubling trend of industry leaders being appointed to oversight agencies and then providing favorable oversight for the industry.
    • Industry ends up controlling the agencies that oversee them.

The Presidency

  • The president is the leader of the executive branch and is involved in both domestic and foreign policy creation.

  • Doctrines on Presidential Power:

    • Literalist Doctrine: A president has only powers specifically mentioned in Article II of the Constitution.
      • The president should not exercise any power that he is not specifically granted.
      • Gives limited power to the president and has not generally been followed since the 1920s.
    • Stewardship Doctrine: The president can exercise power in multiple areas unless the constitution specifically prohibits it.
      • Significantly increases the power of the presidency.
    • Unitary Executive Theory: Provides the president with nearly unlimited power within the executive branch to create rules and policies as he or she sees fit.

  • The president has the most power in foreign policy.

    • As commander in chief, the president can deploy armed forces.
    • The president can create relationships with foreign countries and negotiate treaties and executive agreements.
    • Executive agreements do not have to be ratified by the Senate but may end when the president's term ends.

  • The president can prioritize certain issues and policies within existing law and prioritize federal law enforcement policy to pursue a political agenda.

  • Bully Pulpit: The ability of the president to command media coverage and focus the public's attention on issues he or she wishes to prioritize.

  • Executive Office of the President (EOP):

    • Also known as the “West Wing” of the White House.
    • Contains employees who work directly for the president.
    • Includes the Vice President, White House Chief of Staff, Communications Office, National Security Council, Office of Management and Budget, and eight other offices.
    • Approximately 2,400 people work for the EOP.

  • The president oversees the rest of the Executive Branch, including all the cabinets and agencies of the federal bureaucracy.

Tension Between Branches of the Federal Government

  • The constitutional design guarantees tension between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

  • Branches are codependent on each other to function effectively.

  • Examples of Inter-Branch Dynamics:

    • Congress has the “power of the purse” (legislation and budget).
    • The executive branch manages day-to-day operations and budgets.
    • The president creates a budget proposal, but Congress is not bound to it.
    • Congress creates the final budget, including mandatory and discretionary spending.
    • The president can veto proposed legislation, but Congress can override the veto by a two-thirds vote of each house.
    • The president must take care to faithfully execute the laws but can prioritize the laws.
    • Only Congress can declare war, but the president is commander in chief.
    • Congress funds the armed forces and creates laws governing the military.
    • The judicial branch can declare laws passed by Congress or state actions as unconstitutional.
    • The judicial branch can interpret statutes and the Constitution.
    • The judicial branch depends on the legislative and executive branches for funding, enforcement, and court creation.

Bureaucracy

  • A government bureaucracy is an agency devoted to carrying out the policies of the government consistent with the laws passed by Congress.

  • Cabinet Departments:

    • Large organizations within the executive branch that bring together agencies with similar missions to coordinate activities and provide executive oversight.
    • Created by legislation from Congress.
    • Examples: Department of Defense, Department of State, Department of Justice, and Department of the Treasury.
    • Each department is led by a secretary nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate.
    • Upper leadership of all cabinet departments are subject to Senate confirmation.

  • Civil Service:

    • Everyday workers employed by the federal government.
    • Not political appointees and do not change when a new president enters office.
    • Obtain positions through merit hiring procedures.
    • Civil service hiring began with the Pendleton Act in the 1880s to end corruption.
    • The spoils system hired all government employees based upon political loyalties and favors.

Political Participation

  • Covers anywhere from 20–27% of the questions on your exam.

Voting

  • Voting is the fundamental way that citizens can participate in government.

  • Voting Amendments :

    • The Fifteenth Amendment prohibits discrimination in voting based on race, color, or previous condition of slavery.
    • The Seventeenth Amendment changes the selection of senators from appointment by state legislatures to election by citizens of each state.
    • The Nineteenth Amendment guarantees women the right to vote in all states.
    • The Twenty-Third Amendment provides Washington, DC, residents with 3 electoral votes for president.
    • The Twenty-Fourth Amendment bans the use of poll taxes in all states.
    • The Twenty-Sixth Amendment lowered the voting age from 21 to 18 years old.

  • Voting Rights Landmark Court Cases:

    • Baker v. Carr (1962): Redistricting must be based on equal population in each district, creating the “one person, one vote” rule.

  • Voting Selection Reasons:

    • Party-line voting: Voting for all candidates of one party, and is used when unfamiliar with candidates.
    • Rational choice selection: Voting based on which candidate will be best for their individual interests.
    • Retrospective voting: Making choices based on how a candidate has performed in the past.
    • Prospective voting: Making a candidate selection based on how a voter thinks the candidate will perform in the future.

  • Voter Demographics:

    • Education, income, race, ethnicity, religious affiliation, and age are factors in determining who is likely to vote.
    • Individuals who earn a higher income, college educated individuals, senior citizens, and those who are religiously affiliated tend to be more likely to vote.
    • Racial and ethnic minorities, lower-income individuals, and 18- to 29-year-old voters tend to vote less often.
    • Voter turnout depends on individual issues such as condition of the economy, international crisis, and social issues.
    • The United States has lower voter turnout than other countries based on several factors, including mandatory voting in some countries.

Elections

  • The power to administer elections is divided between the federal government and state governments.
  • Election dates for federal offices are constitutionally defined or set by statute from Congress.
  • State election dates are set by the legislature in each state.
  • Voter registration is divided between the federal and state governments.
    • Voter registration is done state by state.
    • The federal government provides voter registration forms that must be accepted by the states.
  • State and local governments establish and operate polling sites and early voting, which must comply with federal and constitutional civil rights laws.
  • Election Types:
    • Congressional and presidential elections are held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. These are also known as general elections.
    • Primary elections select party candidates on a state-by-state basis, according to state laws and party rules.
      • Closed primaries are open only to registered members of the political party.
      • Open primaries are open to any voter who wants to vote on the ballot of that party.
      • Caucuses require voters to attend a meeting on election night and pledge support for a candidate.
    • Mid-term elections are held when the president is not on the ballot.
      • These elections tend to have lower voter participation
  • Election Rules:
    • Determining who wins an election is done on a state-by-state basis.
      • In some states, candidates may win with a plurality of votes.
      • In other states, candidates must receive a majority of the votes, or runoff elections are held between the top two finishers.
    • Ballot design and technology is done on a state-by-state or county-by-county basis.

Political Parties

  • Political parties are organizations designed to bring like-minded people together to elect members of the party.

  • Role of Political Parties:

    • Organizing government.
    • Operating elections.
    • Educating voters.
    • Increasing voter turnout.

  • Party in the Electorate: Helps to educate voters on issues, update voters on upcoming elections and their rules, register voters, and turn out voters on election day.

  • Two-Party System:

    • The United States has a two-party system largely because of the single-member district nature of our legislative branches combined with the plurality winner elections used by multiple states.
    • Since the 1850s, our two major political parties have been the Democratic Party and the Republican Party.

  • Party Coalition: The different people, interests, and groups affiliated with a political party.

    • Party coalitions can be based on economic interests, social issues, religious affiliation, geographic location, political ideology, racial makeup, and ethnicity, among other factors.

  • Party Affiliation: Voters may choose to affiliate or identify with a political party based on family preference, social group, or views on individual issues.

  • Party Conventions:

    • Parties hold conventions, or gatherings of selected delegates, at both the state and national levels.
    • National conventions occur every four years during the presidential election cycle.
    • Conventions formalize the selection of the presidential and vice-presidential candidate for each party.

  • Third Parties

    • Third parties, or minor parties, exist in abundance.
    • While their electoral success is limited, they can play a significant role in the success of the two major parties and the issues the two major parties emphasize.
    • Minor parties are usually organized around a singular issue or a small set of related issues that motivates the targeted constituency.
    • Historically, when a minor party gains a significant enough following, one of the two major parties will adopt the issues motivating the minor party as part of the major party’s platform.

  • Party in Government: In the legislative branch, political parties form caucuses, which help the legislature run more effectively. These caucuses prioritize legislation and issues and appoint legislative leadership.
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