Notes on Slavery, Westward Movement, Jackson Era, and Manifest Destiny

Slavery and sectionalism

  • The borders of the United States were set north and south; the middle part of the country filled in, bringing together very different cultures and views across regions.
  • Regional differences before and after expansion:
    • New England: business and trade oriented; largely Federalist, favoring a strong central government.
    • Middle and Southern colonies: agrarian; tended toward Democratic-Republican views, favoring state governments with more authority.
  • The most significant regional split concerned slavery:
    • Slavery existed in the colonies since early days; some Native Americans were forced to work in tobacco fields; Africans were captured and brought to the Americas by millions in the 1700s.
    • Enslaved Africans in the colonies: \approx 6\times 10^5 (about 600,000) were brought to work in tobacco, rice, indigo, and cotton.
    • Concentration of enslaved labor: more prevalent in the agrarian South; fewer enslaved people in the North by the early 19th century.
  • By 1820, most Northern states had abolished slavery or were in the process of doing so; abolitionists argued slavery should end nationwide.
  • Constitutional and political framework:
    • The Constitution allowed slavery; courts left the question to individual states.
    • The Missouri Compromise divided the country into free and slave areas; later modified by the Compromise of 1850.
    • Ultimately, both compromises would be ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court (as history would record in later context).
  • The existence of slavery and its centrality to the Southern economy, contrasted with abolitionist sentiment in the North, created a sectional divide that would culminate in war.
  • Other issues contributing to sectional tension included tariffs, which became prominent in the mid-1840s and further intensified sectional feelings.
  • Key terms and references:
    • Slavery, abolitionists, sectionalism, tariffs, free vs. slave states.
    • Missouri Compromise (1820), Compromise of 1850 (passage and subsequent constitutional questions via Supreme Court).

Westward Movement

  • Advancements in transportation enabled westward movement:
    • Building of roads and canals allowed more settlers to cross the Appalachians and populate new territories.
  • Territorial growth and state formation:
    • Areas such as Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, and Indiana progressed from territories toward admission as states.
    • By 1840, there were many new states in the West; the western population began to influence national politics.
  • Political shift:
    • The heart of the nation was shifting westward, which affected the balance of power in Congress and federal politics.
  • Sectional tension increased as the West grew:
    • North vs. South, East vs. West: ideological, economic, and political divides intensified over slavery, business interests, and tariffs.
  • Visual reference note (map context):
    • Page 2 includes a map of western territories with abbreviations (e.g., M, Al, Ma, Mis, Ark, Mich) and mentions places like Jonesboro and Springfield (contextual markers on the map).

Age of Jackson

  • Rise of Andrew Jackson and shift in presidential leadership:
    • Jackson, from Tennessee, was elected President in 1828; this signaled a shift in ideology and political influence toward the West.
    • His election meant that Western states had gained significant sway in national policy.
  • Regional responses:
    • New Englanders felt outside the political mainstream and some threatened secession from the Union.
    • National policy would have to address the growing power and voices of Western states.
  • Abolitionist concerns during Jackson’s era:
    • Abolitionists worried about the expansion of slavery into new territories and states, seeking to prevent a sea-to-sea spread of slavery.
  • Indian policy under Jackson:
    • A major focus of Jackson’s presidency was removing Native Americans from lands east of the Mississippi River.
    • The federal government treated Native American tribes as foreign nations in treaties, but local governments and settlers frequently took land promised in treaties.
    • Fundamental difference in land ownership concepts between Whites and Native Americans underpinned many conflicts.
  • The Indian Removal Act (1830):
    • Congress authorized the President to seek peaceful and voluntary removal of Native Americans; in practice, removal often became forced.
    • Jackson’s representatives negotiated treaties with Native American leaders across the South to move tribes westward to Arkansas and Oklahoma; not all tribes consented willingly.
  • Cherokee Nation and Supreme Court cases:
    • Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831): The Supreme Court ruled the Cherokee Nation did not have lands within U.S. territory as a separate nation but offered a legal remedy, stating that only the federal government could deal with Native American affairs and treaties.
    • Worcester v. Georgia (1832): The Court ruled that White men in Cherokee lands must leave; Chief Justice John Marshall asserted federal primacy in treaty matters, but President Jackson refused to enforce the ruling, reportedly saying, "John Marshall has made his decision. Now let him enforce it." This contributed to Jackson being portrayed by some as acting like a monarch—"King Jackson."
  • Trail of Tears (1835–1838):
    • Jackson dispatched General Winfield Scott and about 7{,}000 troops to enforce removal of remaining Native Americans.
    • The forced removals occurred from 1835 to 1838; the Cherokee removals culminated in the winter of 1838-1839.
    • The removals included brutal conditions: sickness in camps, hundreds of deaths, and a grueling forced march to present-day Oklahoma.
    • The term "Trail of Tears" reflects the humiliating treatment and suffering; historians debate certain treaty interpretations, but most agree the removal was mishandled and brutal.

Trail of Tears

  • Details of the forced removal:
    • The Cherokees, among others, faced relocation to lands west of the Mississippi, with significant loss of life due to disease and hardship during the march.
    • Historical assessment: widely viewed as a deeply embarrassing episode in American history; prompted debates about treaty obligations and federal enforcement of Supreme Court decisions.

Manifest Destiny

  • Ideological backdrop for territorial expansion:
    • During the Jackson and Van Buren administrations, there was growing momentum to stretch the nation from sea to shining sea.
    • The idea tied to religious and moral language: a sense that expansion was the will and plan of God.
  • Notable phrases and origins:
    • Andrew Jackson linked expansion to "extending the area of freedom." Thomas Jefferson had previously described the United States as an "Empire of Liberty." The term "manifest destiny" was first used by John L. O'Sullivan in 1845, arguing that the United States should overspread and possess the continent given by Providence for liberty and self-government.
  • Controversies and opposing viewpoints:
    • Not everyone supported manifest destiny; abolitionists opposed expansion that would spread slavery.
    • Despite opposition, there was robust popular support for annexation of Texas, acquisition of western lands, and the Oregon territory.
  • Territorial culmination by 1850:
    • The nation would, in time, stretch from the Atlantic to the Pacific, including lands that constitute the modern continental United States.
  • Real-world relevance and implications:
    • Manifest destiny shaped policy decisions, conflicts with Native peoples, and interstate relations.
    • The expansion influenced debates over slavery’s expansion into new territories and states, contributing to the larger sectional conflict.

Key dates, terms, and figures to remember

  • 1820: Missouri Compromise establishes free vs. slave territories; later modified by 1850.
  • 1829: Gold discovered near Dahlonega, Georgia, fueling Georgia’s push against the Cherokee removal.
  • 1830: Indian Removal Act signed; expansion of federal authority to remove Native Americans.
  • 1831: Cherokee Nation v. Georgia; recognition of federal role in deals with Native nations but limited territorial acknowledgment.
  • 1832: Worcester v. Georgia; Supreme Court dictates removal of White citizens from Cherokee lands, but federal enforcement remains limited.
  • 1835-1838: Trail of Tears; forced removals of Native Americans; Cherokee removal season peaks in the winter of 1838-1839.
  • 7{,}000: Number of troops used to enforce removals.
  • 1845: John L. O'Sullivan coins the term "manifest destiny".
  • 1840-1850: Westward expansion accelerates; population and political power shift toward the West; by 1850, continental expansion largely realized.
  • General themes: sectionalism (North vs. South, East vs. West), state vs. federal power, slavery’s expansion, Native American removal, and the moral and political costs of expansion.