Notes on Revolutions in Communication and the Study of History

Revolutions in Communication and the Study of History

Motivations for Historians

  • Two fundamental motivations drive historians:
    • (1) To remember and honor history's heroes: This approach, exemplified by Herodotus (484-420 BCE), who wrote The History to preserve deeds and recognize the glory of men (Greeks and Barbarians), is known as "heroic history."
    • (2) To learn the lessons of history: Thucydides (460-400 BCE) advocated for this in The History of the Peloponnesian War, hoping it would provide "an exact knowledge of the past as an aid to the interpretation of the future" and serve "as a possession for all time," not for temporary applause. This is called "critical history."
  • These two motivations can be complementary but often conflict.
  • Heroic History:
    • Pros: Can form a basis for cultural or regional pride, and as historian Joseph Campbell noted, provide "the inspiration for aspiration."
    • Cons: Often omits blemishes and controversies, leading to an oversimplified view where heroics overshadow complexities for young students. Untempered by critical perspective, it can produce dangerous myths, fostering cultural isolation or extreme self-righteousness.
  • Examples of Historically Damaging Myths:
    • Dolchstoßlegende ("stab in the back myth"): Prevalent in Germany after World War I, it falsely blamed Germany's defeat on unpatriotic people on the home front rather than military failure. This myth contributed to anti-Semitism, which escalated into the Holocaust.
    • "Gone with the Wind" myth: Portrays the American South fighting for a noble "lost cause" in the Civil War, obscuring the far less glamorous truth.
  • George Santayana (1863-1952): Famous for the idea, "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it."
  • Motive for Writing History: Often a blend of heroic and critical perspectives, coupled with a desire to inform modern policy.
  • Edward Gibbon (1737-1794): His History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is a modern example of critical history, written with the British Empire in mind, but also celebrated Roman heroes, aligning with Britain's search for its own heroic inspirations.

Can History be Objective?

  • One of the central questions in historiography (the study of history) is the extent to which personal and cultural allegiances can or should be separated from historical narrative.
  • The idea that history should present dry, neatly arranged facts that "speak for themselves" is often challenged.
  • Charles Beard (dissenting view): In his controversial work, An Economic Interpretation of the US Constitution (1913), Beard argued that American Revolutionary leaders were not solely idealistic but also acted in the economic interests of their social class.
  • Lord Acton (moral approach):
    • His most famous aphorism: "Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely."
    • This idea originated from a debate about papal infallibility; Acton believed powerful individuals should be held to an even higher standard due to their susceptibility to corruption.
    • His History of Freedom in Christianity critically examined the papacy with uplifting Protestant motives.
  • Howard Zinn (people's history): Like Macaulay, Zinn argued that a people's history goes beyond cultural or patriotic sentiment. It describes the lives of both the powerless and the powerful, rejecting heroic myth-making that can hide the immorality of the powerful.
  • Post-World War II Historical Trends:
    • Historians initially moved towards exploring societal consensus, downplaying conflicts (e.g., Daniel J. Boorstin in the 1950s and 1960s).
    • This "consensus approach," with its "Grand Narrative," failed to explain emerging social movements (minority civil rights, women's movement, environmental movement) and the socio-political turmoil of the late 1960s and 1970s in Europe and the US.
    • Consequently, historians began investigating new approaches under the umbrella of "social history" (Gage 2011).

Whig History and Other Fallacies

  • Herbert Butterfield (1900-1979): Argued that a significant problem in history, beyond scientific objectivity, was the tendency for historians to take sides.
  • Whig History: Butterfield criticized historians who would "write on the side of Protestants and Whigs," glorify successful revolutions, emphasize principles of progress, and produce a narrative that ratifies or glorifies the present.
  • Thomas Macaulay (balanced approach): Identified two common errors:
    • Judging the present by the past: An error of conservative politicians, prone to reverence for the old. More pernicious in a statesman.
    • Judging the past by the present: An error of liberal historians, readily attracted by the new. More pernicious in a historian.
  • Leopold Von Ranke (1795-1886): Proponent of "scientific" historical philosophy, advocating that historians report "the way things really were." He desired facts that were commonly accredited by all sides (e.g., French, German, and English accounts of Waterloo).
    • He reacted against biases in history, such as Thomas Carlyle's melodramatic History of the French Revolution (1837) and George Bancroft's notion of the United States as an act of God. Both were heavily influenced by personal biases.
  • Flaws in the "Scientific" Approach:
    • While specific facts (like the Battle of Waterloo) might be agreed upon, larger issues (like Napoleon's rise or the European revolutions of 1848) are not viewed objectively by all historians.
    • Von Ranke's meticulous history of the Protestant Reformation in Germany notably omitted the significant impact of the printing press in disseminating Martin Luther's ideas and ensuring the Reformation's success.
  • Thomas Macaulay (1800-1859): Advocated for a "sweeping and inclusive" historical accuracy, arguing that history is incomplete if it only covers "palace intrigues and great battles."
    • He aimed to relate "the history of the people as well as the history of the government," tracing the progress of arts, religious sects, literary tastes, manners, dress, furniture, repasts, and public amusements to present a "true picture of the life of their ancestors" (Macauley 1848).
  • Peter Novick (That Noble Dream): Describes historians' often futile attempts to achieve objectivity over two centuries, suggesting it may be an "unattainable" or "quixotic" dream.
    • Many historians disliked presenting "scientifically cold facts" as much as they disliked Carlyle's style or Bancroft's American piety.
    • They argued that not everything in human affairs can or should be quantified, dismissing a "science of history" as a farce.
    • Their response was to write history that was more relevant, progressive, or uplifting, exemplified by progressive historians like Charles Beard and Lord John Edward Acton.
    • Charles Beard used an ecology analogy: history shouldn't just classify facts like a botanist classifying species but rather interpret and explore "proximate or remote causes and relations."
  • The Historian's Fallacy: The assumption that people in the past possessed knowledge available today, leading to incorrect conclusions about cause and effect. A good historian accounts for the "fog of war" or knowledge limitations of the time.
  • Cultural Restrictions on Historians: Women and minorities were historically overlooked until the mid-to-late 20^{th} century despite significant contributions.
    • Barbara Tuchman: Broke barriers, winning a Pulitzer Prize in 1963 for The Guns of August, her history of World War I's outbreak.
    • Elizabeth Eisenstein: Her theories on printing's influence on early modern Europe profoundly changed the understanding of communication history.
  • "End of History" Concept:
    • Proposed by thinkers like Francis Fukuyama (1952-present) and Jean Baudrillard (1929-2007).
    • It refers to the collapse of ideology or the end of the idea of historical progress.
    • Baudrillard attributed this to the abandonment of utopian visions across both right- and left-wing political ideologies (Fukuyama 1992; Baudrillard 1994).
    • However, utopian visions re-emerged with advances in communication technologies, evident in the visions of social networks and free cultures described by Vannevar Bush, John Perry Barlow, Howard Rheingold, Richard Stallman, and others involved in the digital revolution.
  • Conclusion on Objectivity: The debate over objectivity is continuous, with historians seeking their own balance between ideals of accuracy and high purpose, always conscious of the "Scylla and Charybdis of historiographic calamity" while striving for truth.

Understanding History

  • Civilization's Memory: History serves as civilization's memory; without understanding the past, we are "groping blindly into the future."
  • Active Investigation: The Greek word "\text{iotopia - historia} " means "knowledge acquired by investigation," signifying history as an active search for truth.
  • Historians have a duty to accuracy and truth but operate under their own rules, not always seeking the exact answers demanded in hard sciences or social sciences.
  • Powerful Tool: History is a potent analytical tool that can also be used to legitimize modern agendas and political projects.
    • Historian Alan Nevins: "History is never above the melee. It is not a neutral, but forced to enlist in every army."
    • Historian Eugen Weber: History is "the dressing room of politics."
  • Historical perspectives are not static; they evolve with new research, tools, and modern viewpoints.

The Study of Communication History

  • The historical study of the entire field of communication is a relatively new endeavor.
  • Historically, studies of the press and biographies of notable editors have been popular for centuries.
  • Early Works (Heroic Approach):
    • Joseph Moxon's Mechanick Exercises (1683)
    • S. Palmer's History of Printing (1764)
    • Isaiah Thomas's History of Printing in America (1810)
    • James Parton's Life of Horace Greeley (1855)
    • The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin (1864)
    • Frederic Hudson's Journalism in the United States (1873)
    • James Melvin Lee's History of American Journalism (1917) – faced criticism for a "complacent and partisan denial" of problems within the news media (Grabo 1918).
  • Purpose of Early Works: Moxon and Palmer aimed to strengthen allegiance to the printing profession, while Thomas, Parton, Hudson, and Lee generally adopted a heroic approach.
  • Shift to Critical Perspectives: Critical views of the news business began to emerge in the 20^{th} century during the Progressive Age, potentially influenced by US presidents.