Nursing Aptitude Test Reviewer: Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology Notes

Homeostasis

• The process by which the body regulates its temperature is referred to as homeostasis.

Osmosis and Diffusion

• Osmosis and diffusion processes are important for the movement of water and other molecules in the body.

• Water molecules flow from a less concentrated solution to a more concentrated solution.

• Water flows from the soil into the roots via osmosis.

• Dogs take in oxygen during inspiration by passive diffusion.

Functional Units of Organs

• The functional unit of the Lungs is the Alveoli.

  • Tiny air sacs where gas exchange (O₂ in, CO₂ out) happens.

• The functional unit of the Kidney is the Nephron.

  • Filters blood, removes waste, forms urine.

• The functional unit of the Heart is the Cardiomyocyte (Cardiac Muscle Cell)

  • Specialized muscle cells that contract and pump blood.

• The functional unit of the Brain is the Neuron.

  • Nerve cells that transmit electrical and chemical signals.

• The functional unit of the Liver is the Hepatocyte

  • Performs detoxification, protein synthesis, and metabolism.

• The functional unit of the Pancreas is the Islets of Langerhans

  • Produces insulin and glucagon (for blood sugar regulation).

• The functional unit of the Bones is the Osteon (Haversian system)

  • The structural unit that maintains and remodels bone tissue.

• The functional unit of the Muscles is the Myocyte (Muscle fiber)

  • Contract to produce movement.

• The functional unit of the Spinal Chord is the Neuron

  • Same as brain—transmits signals between body and brain.

• The functional unit of the Skin is the Epidermal Cell (Keratinocyte)

  • Protects body, regulates temperature, prevents water loss.

• The functional unit of the Endocrine Glands is the Secretory Cell

  • Produces and releases hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Brain Lobes and Functions

• The temporal lobe of the brain is associated with hearing.

• The occipital lobe of the cerebrum is associated with vision.

• Injury to the cerebellum can cause difficulty in balancing.

• The frontal lobe is responsible for thinking, decision-making, and voluntary movement.

• The parietal lobe is involved in processing touch, pain, temperature, and spatial awareness.

• The brainstem controls breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.

• The hypothalamus regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and hormones.

• The thalamus acts as a relay station for sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex.

• The hippocampus is essential for forming new memories and learning.

• The amygdala helps process emotions like fear and aggression.

Sensory Anatomical Parts

• Semi-circular canals are located in the ears. Their function is to help maintain balance and detect head movement.

• The cochlea is located in the inner ear. Its function is hearing; it converts sound vibrations into nerve impulses.

• The retina is located at the back of the eyeball. Its function is to receive light and send visual signals to the brain.

• The optic nerve connects the eye to the brain. It is responsible for transmitting visual information from the retina to the brain.

Diagnostic Tests

• A flame test can be used to identify potassium, sodium, and calcium.

• An iodine test can be performed on potatoes to identify starch.

• A glucose tolerance test (GTT) is used to diagnose diabetes.

• A Mantoux test (PPD test) is used to screen for tuberculosis.

• A chest X-ray is used to detect lung conditions like pneumonia or TB.

Human Skeleton

• The human skeleton is made of 206 bones.

• The spinal column has 33 vertebrae.

• The longest bone in the human body is the femur.

• The skull consists of 22 bones.

• The smallest bone is the stapes (in the ear).

• The humerus is the bone of the upper arm.

• The tibia and fibula are bones in the lower leg.

• The pelvis supports the spinal column and legs.

Nursing Procedures

• The nurse should always wash their hands immediately before any procedure.

• Vital signs should be taken before administering medications.

• Informed consent must be obtained before any invasive procedure.

• Proper body mechanics are used when lifting or transferring patients.

• The needle should not be recapped after giving an injection to avoid needle-stick injuries.

Electrolyte Imbalance

• A child with vomiting and diarrhea is at risk of electrolyte imbalance.

• Low potassium (hypokalemia) can cause muscle weakness and irregular heartbeat.

• Hyponatremia means low sodium and may cause confusion or seizures.

• Hypercalcemia (high calcium) can lead to lethargy and kidney stones.

Reflective Technique in Nursing

• When a patient says, “This is no way to live,” a reflective response would be, “You sound discouraged today.”

• If a patient says, “I don’t think I’ll ever get better,”
  ➤ Reflective response: “You feel hopeless about your recovery.”

• If a patient says, “I’m tired of taking so many medications,”
  ➤ Reflective response: “It seems like the treatment is overwhelming for you.”

• If a patient says, “No one understands what I’m going through,”
  ➤ Reflective response: “You feel like you’re going through this alone.”

Therapeutic Communication Techniques

1. Active Listening
The nurse uses eye contact, nodding, and silence to show full attention.

2. Clarification
Used to clear up confusion.
➤ “Can you explain what you mean by feeling weird?”

3. Restating
Repeating what the patient said in your own words.
➤ Patient: “I’m always in pain.”
➤ Nurse: “You’re saying the pain doesn’t go away?”

4. Focusing
Helps the patient concentrate on one point.
➤ “Let’s talk more about your feelings of anxiety.”

5. Silence
Gives the patient time to think or express emotions.
➤ A gentle pause can encourage deeper sharing.

6. Summarizing
Reviewing what the patient has shared.
➤ “You’ve mentioned that you feel tired, alone, and unsure about treatment.”

7. Giving Broad Openings
Allows the patient to take the lead.
➤ “What would you like to talk about today?”

8. Acknowledgement
Showing recognition of the patient’s feelings.
➤ “I can see that you’re feeling really upset right now.”

Basic Nursing Techniques

1. Palpation
Using hands to feel body parts for abnormalities (e.g., swelling, temperature).

2. Percussion
Tapping body parts to assess air, fluid, or solid structures.

3. Medication Administration “5 Rights”
➤ Right patient
➤ Right medication
➤ Right dose
➤ Right route
➤ Right time

6. Proper Body Mechanics
Use your legs (not back) when lifting to avoid injury.

7. Vital Signs Monitoring
Includes temperature, pulse, respiration, and blood pressure.

8. Infection Control
Use gloves, masks, and other PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) as needed.

Patient Teaching About Vitamins

• A patient statement indicating a further need for teaching about vitamins is, “Vitamins can be taken without the fear of toxic effects.”

Constipation

• For a patient who is constipated, the nurse should encourage the patient to eat fresh fruit and whole wheat bread.

Hemorrhage

• Additional signs of hemorrhage include tachycardia and increased respiration rate.

COPD Exacerbation

• For a patient with an exacerbation of COPD in respiratory distress, the nurse should first assist the patient into a sitting position at 90 degrees.

Impaired Gas Exchange

• Interventions for a patient with impaired gas exchange due to lung cancer include:

  • Applying oxygen via nasal cannula

  • Having the dietitian plan for 6 small meals a day

  • Assessing vital signs for fever

  • Listening to lung sounds every shift

Parathyroid Hormone

• Parathyroid hormone production has the following effects:

  • Dissolving of calcium phosphate crystals present in bones

  • Increased excretion of phosphate ions by the kidneys

  • Increased calcium ion concentration in the extracellular fluids

  • It will NOT cause long-term increased phosphate concentration in the extracellular fluids

Hormones

• Hormones do not catalyze a metabolic reaction.

• Hormones:

  • Alter metabolic processes within target organs

  • Alter a person’s entire metabolism

  • Travel from the site of production to the site of action via the circulatory system

Parathyroid Hormone Production

• Parathyroid hormone production is turned on by low concentrations of calcium ions in extracellular fluids.

Endocrine System

• The master control center of the endocrine system is the hypothalamus.

TRH (Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone)

• Production and secretion of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) will lead to all of the following EXCEPT:

  • A change in the metabolic rates of cells

  • Production of thyroid-stimulating hormone by the thyroid gland

  • Secretion of thyroxin by the thyroid gland

  • It will NOT cause decreased production of TRH by neurons in the hypothalamus

Facultative Anaerobes

• Cells that can live with or without oxygen are known as facultative anaerobes.

Epinephrine

• Epinephrine is secreted from the adrenal medulla.

Peptide Hormones

• Peptide hormones can:

  • Act on target cells from a distance

  • Act through second messengers

  • Bind to and activate specific enzymes in the cell

Insulin

• The role of insulin is to allow cells to take in glucose.

Glucose Levels

• Several hours after a meal, if glucose levels are low, the beta cells will no longer secrete insulin, and the alpha cells will continue to secrete insulin.

Diabetes

• In Type II diabetes, the cells in the Islets of Langerhans are defective.

Insulin Secretion

• Insulin is secreted by the beta cells.

Calcitonin

• The hormone calcitonin is secreted by the parafollicular cells found in the thyroid gland.

Thyroxin Production

• Iodine is needed for thyroxin production.

Goitre

• Goitre describes the enlargement of the thyroid gland.

• Goitre occurs because of iodine deficiency in the diet.

Genetics

• A pair of genes that control two contrasting characters are called alleles.

• If a pair of genes that control two contrasting characters are the same, the genotype is said to be homozygous.

Chemical Bonds

• The bond formed between sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) in sodium chloride (NaCl) is referred to as an ionic bond.

• The bond formed between hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) in a water (H_2O) molecule is referred to as a covalent bond.

• The bond that exists between water (H_2O) molecules is referred to as a hydrogen bond.

Standard Precautions

• Using the principles of standard precautions, the nurse would wear gloves when providing oral hygiene.

Assessing Temperature

• The best method to assess an alert client’s temperature, admitted to the hospital with dehydration secondary to vomiting and diarrhea, is oral.

Wide Base Support

• To use a wide base support when assisting a client to get up in a chair, spread his or her feet apart.

Temperature Measurement

• The best method to take the body temperature of a client who had oral surgery following a motor vehicle accident and has flushed, warm skin is axillary.

Unconscious Patient

• When performing mouth care for a client who is unconscious, the best position for the patient is side-lying.

Hospital Safety

• For a client who is hospitalized for the first time, the following action can ensure the safety of the client: Keep unnecessary furniture out of the way.

Nursing Process: Assessment

• When a walk-in client enters the clinic with a chief complaint of abdominal pain and diarrhea, and the nurse takes the client’s vital signs, the nurse is implementing the assessment phase of the nursing process.
  → This step involves collecting subjective and objective data. The nurse should also inquire about the client's medical history, including any recent travel, medication use, and dietary habits to further evaluate potential causes for the symptoms.

Nursing Process: Diagnosis

• If the nurse analyzes the client’s data and identifies a problem like "Risk for dehydration related to frequent diarrhea", this is the diagnosis phase.
  → Involves interpreting data to form nursing diagnoses.

Nursing Process: Planning

• If the nurse sets a goal like:
  “The client will maintain normal fluid balance within 24 hours,”
  this is the planning phase.
  → Focuses on setting SMART goals and prioritizing patient needs.

Nursing Process: Planning

• If the nurse sets a goal like:
  “The client will maintain normal fluid balance within 24 hours,”
  this is the planning phase.
  → Focuses on setting SMART goals and prioritizing patient needs.

Nursing Process: Implementation

• When the nurse gives the patient oral rehydration salts and encourages fluid intake, she is in the implementation phase.
  → This is the action phase where planned interventions are carried out.

Nursing Process

• The nursing process is best described as a systematic, rational method of planning and providing nursing care for individuals, families, groups, and communities.

Gas Exchange Organ

• Exchange of gases takes place in the lungs.

Heart Chambers

• The chamber of the heart that receives oxygenated blood from the lungs is the left atrium.

Stomach

• The stomach is a muscular enlarge pouch or sac that lies slightly to the left and is used for temporary storage of food.

Immunity

• Immunity is the ability of the body to defend itself against scientific invading agents such as bacteria, toxins, viruses, and foreign bodies.

Insulin Production

• The Islets of Langerhans are the location where Insulin secreted.

Eye Anatomy

• The cornea is a transparent membrane that focuses the light that enters the eyes onto the retina.

Orem's Theory

• Maintenance of a sufficient intake of air is included in Orem’s theory.

Maslow's Hierarchy

• Love and belonging, physiologic needs, and self-actualization are all part of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Acute Illness

• Acute illness is characterized by severe symptoms of relatively short duration.

Nurse's Role

• The nurse’s role in health promotion includes:
  *Health risk appraisal
  *Teach client to be effective health consumer
  *Worksite wellness

Community

• A community is described as a collection of people who share some attributes of their lives.

Conversions

• 5 teaspoons is equivalent to 25 ml.

• 1800 ml is equal to 1.8 liters.

• 1 tablespoon (tbsp) = 15 ml

• 1 ounce (oz) = 30 ml

• 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams (g)

• 1 gram = 1000 milligrams (mg)

• 1 mg = 1000 micrograms (mcg)

• 1 liter = 1000 ml

• 1 inch = 2.54 cm

Abbreviations

• The abbreviation for drops is gtt.

• The abbreviation for micro drop is µgtt.

• PRN means when necessary.

• CBR means complete bed rest.

• BID = Twice a day

• TID = Three times a day

• QID = Four times a day

• STAT = Immediately

• OD = Right eye

• OS = Left eye

• OU = Both eyes

• AD = Right ear

• AS = Left ear

• AU = Both ears

Dosage

• 1 tsp is equal to 15 drops.

• 20 cc is equal to 20 ml.

• 1 cup is equal to 8 ounces.

• 1 tsp = 5 ml

• 1 tbsp = 15 ml

• 1 cup = 240 ml (or 8 oz)

• 1 pint = 480 ml

• 1 quart = 960 ml

• 1 glass of water = 240 ml

• 1 drop (gtt) = approx. 0.05 ml

Client Identification

• The safest way to identify the client is to check the client’s identification band.

• Always use two identifiers: name and date of birth (or hospital ID).

Medication Administration

• When administering buccal medication, the medicine should be placed between the client’s cheeks and gums.

• The common position for a cleansing enema procedure is Sims' left lateral.

• If a client complains of difficulty swallowing when the nurse tries to administer capsule medication, the nurse should check the availability of a liquid preparation.

• The appropriate route of administration for insulin is subcutaneous.

• If the nurse is ordered to administer ampicillin capsule TID p.o., the nurse should give the medication three times a day orally.

• Eye drops should be administered into the conjunctival sac, not directly onto the cornea.

• Ear drops for adults should be administered by pulling the pinna upward and back.

• The Z-track method is used for intramuscular injections to prevent medication leakage into subcutaneous tissue.

• Before administering digoxin, the nurse should check the patient’s apical pulse for one full minute.

• Intradermal injections are commonly used for tuberculin tests and are administered at a 15-degree angle.

• Oral medications should never be given to a client who is vomiting or unconscious.

• When crushing medication for administration via nasogastric tube, each drug should be crushed and diluted separately.

• Transdermal patches must be applied to clean, dry, hairless skin, and the old patch should be removed before applying a new one.

Back Care

• Back care is best described as caring for the back by means of massage.

Bed Making

• Bed making refers to the preparation of the bed with a new set of linens.

Handwashing

• The most important purpose of handwashing is to prevent the transfer of microorganisms.

Bed Making

• To prevent contaminating the environment during bed making, avoid fanning soiled linens.

Cleansing Bed Bath

• The most important purpose of a cleansing bed bath is to cleanse, refresh, and give comfort to the client who must remain in bed.

Inspection

• Inspection is the technique in physical examination that involves the sense of sight.

Abdominal Examination

• The first technique used to examine the abdomen of a client is inspection.

Resonance

• Resonance is best described as sounds created by air-filled lungs.

Rectal Examination

• The best position for examining the rectum is the knee-chest position.

Gait

• Gait refers to the manner of walking.

Snellen Chart

• When the nurse asks the client to read the Snellen chart, the optic nerve is being tested.

Knee-Chest Position

• Another name for the knee-chest position is genu-pectoral.

IM Injection

• When preparing an IM injection that is irritating to the subcutaneous tissue, the best action to prevent tracking of the medication is to use the Z-track technique.

• The amount of medicine that can be injected into the gluteal muscle is up to 5 ml.

Enema Administration

• While giving an enema, the height of the enema cane from the anus should be 12 inches.

ABG Analysis

• During ABG analysis, blood is collected from an artery.

Intradermal Injection

• An intradermal injection is given at a 15° angle.

Medical Abbreviations

• S.O.S means give whenever necessary.

Blood in Stool

• Presence of blood in the stool is known as melena.

Normal Respiration Rate

• Normal respiration rate in a neonate is 40-60 breaths/min.

Intraosseous Injection

• An intraosseous injection is given in bone marrow.

Breathing Pattern

• To maintain a normal breathing pattern, Fowler’s position is beneficial.

Fever and Bradycardia

• Fever with relative bradycardia is seen in typhoid.

Newborn Pulse Check

• A suitable site to check the pulse in a newborn is the apical pulse.

Temperature Check

• The right route to check the temperature in children is the axillary method.

Serum Potassium Level

• Normal serum potassium level is 3.5 to 5 mEq/L.

Moist Cold Application

• The objectives of moist cold application are all of the following EXCEPT to stimulate the inflammation process.

Hot Compress

• All of the following are advantages of a hot compress EXCEPT it increases tension.

CPR Ratio

• The compression to ventilation ratio in CPP in the case of a single rescuer is 30:2.

IM Injection Site

• The preferred site for giving an IM injection to an infant is the vastus lateralis.

Suffix "itis"

• The suffix “itis” means inflammation.

Hemoglobin

• When hemoglobin is in an environment that is low in oxygen, it readily gives up its oxygen.

Gills

• Lobsters have gills.

Oxygen in Water

• The amount of oxygen in the air is more than that of water.

Oxygen Uptake

• Oxygen in water is removed by gills through passive diffusion.

Respiratory System

• The functional unit of the respiratory system is the alveolus.

Cutin

• Cutin is a complex substance found on the surface of leaves.

Animal Cells

• The cells of active animals require the rapid delivery of oxygen.

Excretion

• Excretion is the process whereby you eliminate metabolic by-products.

Horse Excretion

• Horses excrete mostly urea.

Amino Acids

• The amino acids resulting from the hydrolysis of proteins undergo further metabolism because they cannot be stored.

Multicellular Organisms

• The cells of multicellular organisms eliminate their metabolic by-products into the internal environment of the organism.

Aquatic Organisms

• Aquatic organisms excrete mostly ammonia.

Closed Transport System

• In organisms with a closed transport system, blood flows in one direction around a circular path.

Chambered Hearts

• Chambered hearts all have at least one receiving chamber and one delivery chamber.

Kidney Function

• The intake of large quantities of water will tend to make your kidneys have a high output of urine.

Photosynthesis Rate

• Photosynthesis occurs at a high rate during the cooler parts of the day.

Hemoglobin

• Hemoglobin consists of two parts, a heme and a globin.

ATP

• Most of the ATP in the cell exists in the form of MgATP.

Cellulose

• Cellulose is not a protein.

Protein

• Collagen is a protein.

Disaccharides

• Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose.

Milk Digestion

• The end-product for the digestion of milk is Glucose and Galactose.

Polysaccharides

• Carbohydrate is the principal component of chitin and heparin.

Prokaryote

• Bacteria can be classified as prokaryotes.

Cytoplasm

• The liquid part of the cytoplasm is referred to as cytosol.

RNA Transcription

• If a piece of DNA has the gene code “AGAAGTCGGCT”, the resulting RNA sequence will be “UCUUCAGCCGA”.

Histone

• Histone is the protein bound to DNA.

Hydrolytic Enzymes

• Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes.

Oxidative Enzyme

• Peroxisomes contains oxidative enzymes.

Lysosomes

• Lysosomes are small vesicular bodies containing biodegradative enzymes that decompose foreign substances that invade the cell.

Nucleus

• The nucleus is responsible for ribosome synthesis.