History of India, 300 CE to 1200 CE - Comprehensive Study Notes

University of Delhi - B.A. (Programme) Semester-II Notes: History of India, 300 CE to 1200 CE

Overview

These notes cover the History of India from 300 CE to 1200 CE, as per the UGCF-2022 and National Education Policy 2020. The material is divided into six units, each exploring different aspects of this period.

Unit 1: Survey of the Sources

1.0 Learning Objectives

• Understand the sources of history for the period c. 300-1200 CE.

• Recognize the significance of sources for reconstructing our past.

• Identify the limitations of different types of sources.

1.1 Introduction

• Sources are crucial for the reconstruction of history. Interpretations of these sources evolve over time, emphasizing the role of historians in connecting the past and present.

• The 19th century saw advancements in epigraphy, numismatics, art, and architecture, along with the translation of literary accounts. Archaeological efforts also revealed significant historical facts.

• Acknowledging the limitations of each source type is essential; corroboration between literary and archaeological evidence is necessary for a comprehensive understanding of history.

1.2 Literary Sources

• Literary sources provide detailed narratives but have limitations like chronology issues, script challenges, and author biases.

• These are supplemented by epigraphic, numismatic, and archaeological sources.

• Literary sources are classified into religious literature, non-religious literature, and foreign accounts.

1.2.1 Religious Literature

• Major Puranas, the Mahabharata, and the Ramayana were compiled during the Gupta period.

• The Manjushri-mulakalpa contains a chapter on Indian history from the early centuries CE to the early medieval period.

• The Bhagavata Purana (c. 10th century), the Brahmavaivarta Purana (10th-16th centuries), and the Kalika Purana (10th/11th century).

• Older Puranas added sections on tirthas (pilgrimage), vratas (vows), penances, gifts, and women's dharma.

• Upapuranas, mainly from Eastern India, offer insights into popular beliefs, customs, and festivals.

1.2.2 Non-Religious Literature

• During the Gupta period, Sanskrit achieved its classical form, influencing poetry and prose.

• Kamandaka’s Nitisara (4th century CE) discusses polity.

• Fragments of Vishakhadatta's Devi-Chandragupta provide information on Gupta political history.

• Somadeva’s Kathasaritsagara preserves popular folklore in Sanskrit.

• The Kamasutra and Amarakosha offer insights into contemporary society.

• Tamil epics like Silappadikaram and Manimekalai (5th/6th century CE) are valuable sources for South Indian history.

• Kalidasa's dramas and lyrical poems are Sanskrit masterpieces.

• Bhartrihari (5th century) commented on Patanjali’s Mahabhashya.

• Vishnusharman’s Panchatantra stories use animals for satire.

• Varahamihira’s Panchasiddhantika summarizes astronomical knowledge.

• Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita explains seasons and meteorological phenomena.

• Dharmashastra works like the Yajnavalkya, Narada, Katyayana, and Brihaspati Smritis were composed. Post-Gupta literature includes philosophical commentaries, plays, hymns, and poetry anthologies and distinguishes between law (vyavahara) and duty (dharma).

• Commentaries on Manu Smriti by Medatithi (9th century), Govindaraja (11th/12th century), and Kulluka Bhatta (12th century).

• Vijnaneshvara (11th-12th centuries) and Apararka (12th century) commented on Yajnavalkya Smriti.

• Vijnaneshvara’s Mitakshara discusses law.

• Lakshmidhara’s Kritya-kalpataru (12th century) and Devanabhatta’s Smritichandrika (11th/12th century) are important Dharmashastra works.

• Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya and Aryabhata-siddhanta explain eclipses scientifically.

• Brahmagupta (late 6th/7th century) authored the Brahmasputasiddhanta (628 CE) and the Khandakhadyaka (665 CE), introducing Indian astronomy to the Arabs.

• Mahavira (9th century) wrote Ganitasarasangraha on mathematical problems.

• Bhaskara II (12th century) wrote Lilavati with calculus ideas.

• The Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas are early Ayurveda texts, integrating philosophical ideas.

• Vagbhata wrote Ashtangahridaya and Ashtangasamgraha in the 6th century, and Kashyapa wrote in the 7th century.

• The 14th-century Sharngadhara Samhita offers an Ayurveda account.

• Palakapya’s Hastyayurveda deals with elephant diseases.

• Post-Gupta non-religious literature covers metre, grammar, lexicography, poetics, music, architecture, medicine, and mathematics.

• Royal biographies by court poets: Banabhatta’s Harshacharita, Sandhyakaranandin’s Ramacharita, Padmagupta’s Navasahasankacharita, and Bilhana’s Vikramankadevacharita.

• Hemachandra’s Kumarapalacharita and Jayanaka’s Prithvirajavijaya.

• Chand Bardai’s Prithvirajaraso and Kalhana’s Rajatarangini.

• Apabhramsha works on Jaina doctrines, saints, epics, stories, and couplets.

• Devotional songs of Alvars and Nayanmars.

• The Lekhapaddhati (13th century Gujarat) contains legal document models.

• Krishiparashara focuses on agriculture.

• Jain folk tales from Western India offer trade insights.

• Epics were translated into regional languages.

1.2.3 Foreign Accounts

• Cosmas Indicopleustes' Christian Topography (6th century).

• Accounts from Chinese monks Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing provide Buddhist perspectives.

• Faxian’s Fo-kuo-ki.

• Xuanzang’s Si-Yu-Ki (Record of the Western World).

• Yijing’s works on Buddhist doctrines and biographies of Chinese monks in 7th-century India.

• Arab writings from the 9th-12th centuries by Sulaiman, Al-Masudi, Al-Biruni provide useful trading activities of the period.

• Al-Biruni’s Tehkik-i-Hind (Kitab-ul-Hind) details 12th-century society.

1.3 Archaeological Sources

• Archaeological sources, including inscriptions, coins, seals, pottery, beads, and sculptures, found through explorations, surface collections, or excavations, are crucial for historical reconstruction.

• Corroboration is necessary due to the limitations.

1.3.1 Inscriptions

• Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions; Palaeography is the study of ancient writing.

• Sanskrit replaced Prakrit as the language of inscriptions by the end of the 3rd century CE.

• Post-Gupta, regional languages and scripts evolved, with Sanskrit inscriptions exhibiting local dialect influence.

• Tamil became an important language for South Indian inscriptions under the Pallava dynasty.

• Kannada inscriptions date back to the late 6th/early 7th century CE.

• Telugu inscriptions began in the late 6th century CE with early Chola kings.

• Malayalam inscriptions appeared around the 15th century.

• Marathi and Oriya inscriptions appeared from the 11th century onward.

• Inscriptions are dated in regnal years or eras and provide astronomical details and are classified by content and purpose.

• Royal land grants are a crucial category of donative records inscribed on stone or copper plates.

• Royal inscriptions include prashastis (eulogies) detailing royal genealogies and political events.

• Inscriptions offer durability, contemporaneity, and locational context compared to literary sources.

• They reveal political structures, administration, revenue systems, settlement patterns, agrarian relations, labor forms, and class/caste structures.

• Villages granted to Brahmanas were known as agraharas, brahmadeyas, or shasanas.

1.3.2 Coins

• Numismatics is the study of coins. Coins function as mediums of exchange, stores of value, units of account, and deferred payment methods.

• Ikshvakus issued lead coins (3rd–4th centuries) similar to Satavahana coins.

• Gupta kings issued well-executed die-struck gold coins with Sanskrit legends (dinaras).

• Coin obverses depict kings in martial poses, playing the vina, etc; reverses feature religious symbols.

• Skandagupta's reign saw a decline in gold coin purity.

• Guptas also issued silver coins; copper coins are rare.

• Numismatic evidence provides biographical details, such as Chandragupta I's marriage to a Lichchhavi princess.

• Coins confirm Ramagupta's rule and record the ashvamedha sacrifice by Samudragupta and Kumaragupta I.

• Archer and battle-axe coin types symbolize Samudragupta's prowess, while the lyrist type represents his artistic side.

• Early medieval numismatic history is debated, with some historians noting a decline in coinage alongside trade and urbanization, followed by a revival by the 11th century.

1.3.3 Other Archaeological Remains

• Archaeological remains from 300-600 CE are mostly religious. Excavations at Purana Qila, Ahichchhatra, Basarh, Bhita, Arikamedu, and Kaveripattinam provide significant antiquities.

• Purana Qila had reused brick structures.

• Ahichchhatra had a terraced temple from the early Gupta period.

• Hulaskhera had structural remains from the Gupta period.

• Rajghat had a seal with Brahmi characters.

• Kumrahar in Patna had a Buddhist monastery.

• Mahasthangarh had burnt brick fortifications.

• Basarh (ancient Vaishali) had hundreds of seals and sealings.

1.4 Limitations of Sources

• Ascertaining accurate dates for sources is a major challenge.

• Literary sources face dating and authorship problems.

• Inscriptions are often short and lack detailed information.

• Many archaeological sites lack systematic excavation due to habitation or preservation problems.

• Vertical excavations reveal culture sequences, but horizontal digging is needed for explicit information.

• Excavated structures decay over time.

• Pottery, coins, and sculptures are not always found in their original context, which makes it hard to determine their real significance and context.

1.5 Conclusion

The study requires corroboration of information from varied remains available to our understanding.

1.6 Key Points to Sum Up

• There are different types of sources for the study of our past.

• Greater development of Sanskrit occurred during the Gupta period.

• Post-Gupta centuries show a rise of vernacular languages and literature.

• Land grants became very popular during the period 600-1200 CE.

• Cowries became the most common medium of exchange during 600-1200 CE.

• Each source type has its own limitations.

Unit 2: The Guptas and Vakatakas

2.0 Learning Objectives

• Trace the administrative, economic, and social developments from the fourth to seventh centuries of the Common Era.

• Identify the reasons for the rise and growth of the Gupta empire.

• Examine the process that led to the decline of the Guptas and the emergence of various political powers.

2.1 Introduction

The period from the fourth to the seventh centuries is important in ancient Indian history, as it was a transitional period.

2.2 Historiography

• Colonial historians viewed ancient India as a ‘dark age’.

• Nationalists highlighted ancient India's achievements and termed the Gupta period a ‘golden age’.

• Marxist historians emphasized ‘Indian Feudalism’ due to land grants.

• Processualist models highlight integrative forces in political formation.

2.3 The ‘Myth of Golden Age’

• The Gupta period was largely selected because of impressive literary works in Sanskrit and the high quality of art, which coincided with what was viewed as a brahmanical ‘renaissance’.

• The description of a Golden Age reflected the life of the wealthy, and their activities alone characterized such an age.

• New artistic forms were initiated during the pre-Gupta in north India.

2.4 The Early Guptas

• Evidence on the origin and antecedents of the Gupta family is limited.

2.4.1 Chandra Gupta I

• The dynasty came into its own with the accession of Chandra Gupta I, who made his kingdom more than a mere principality.

• Chandra Gupta I married into the Lichchhavi family

• His rule extended over the Ganges heartland (Magadha, Saketa and Prayaga) and he took the title of maharajadhiraja.

2.4.2 Samudra Gupta

• Samudra Gupta claimed that he was appointed by his father to succeed him about 335 A.D.

• A lengthy eulogy, composed by his court poet, Harishena was inscribed on an Ashokan pillar, now at Allahabad.

• Samudra Gupta broke the power of the chiefdoms in the watershed and northern Rajasthan.

• Samudra Gupta’s conquests are well reflected in his having performed the horse sacrifice and proclaiming his victories in the Allahabad pillar inscription.

2.4.3 Chandra Gupta II

• Chandra Gupta’s major campaign was fought against the Shakas.

• The campaign led to the annexation of western India, commemorated by the issuing of special silver coins.

2.5 The Vakatakas

• The Vakatakas of Vidharbha were an important political power in central India and northern Deccan.

• Prabhavatigupta’s regency initiating a rupture in the Vakataka dominance over Vidarbha and increasing Gupta influence in the Vakataka court.

2.6 Gupta Administration

• The Gupta kings took exalted imperial titles, such as Maharaja-adhiraja, ‘the great king of kings’, parameshvara, ‘the supreme lord’.

• Such grand titles echo those of the rulers of the north-west and beyond and like them carry the flavour of divinity.

• The system developed from the notion that granting land as a support to kingship could be more efficacious than the performance of a sacrifice, and that land was appropriate as a mahadana or ‘great gift’.

2.7 Land Grants

• Grants of land were made to religious and ritual specialists or to officers.

• Kings who conquered neighbouring kingdoms sometimes converted the defeated kings into tributary or subordinate rulers, often referred to in modern writing as feudatories.

• The term samanta, originally meaning neighbour, gradually changed its meaning to a tributary ruler.

• Brahmanas as religious beneficiaries were granted land, ostensibly in return for legitimizing and validating the dynasty, or averting misfortune through the correct performance of rituals or the king earning merit.

2.8 Socio-Economic Changes

• The conventional historiography projected continuation of the four-fold division of the Varna-System (Chatur-Varna) in the Gupta and post-Gupta period.

• Rural society had to be initiated in the norms of state society in regions where local state formation was taking place for the first time.
  One of the most important social developments in this period was proliferation of castes or jatis.

2.8.1 Social Changes

• Idealized form of women in literature and art tend to give the impression that women generally enjoyed a higher social status.

• A widow was expected to live in austerity while a widow of the Kshatriya caste was expected to immolate herself on the funeral pyre of her husband especially if he had died a hero’s death this would make her a sati.

2.8.2 Economic Changes

• The most important innovation in the agricultural sector was the introduction of the land grant economy.

  • One of the most important socio-economic changes was ‘peasantization’ of tribes in central Indian belt Orissa, Assam, part of western and southern India.

• The debasement of the later Gupta coinage has been interpreted as recording a fiscal crisis.

• Guilds continued to be vital in the manufacture of goods and in commercial enterprise and had their own laws regarding their internal organization.
  Commercial enterprise was encouraged through donations to guilds.

2.9 Religious Life

A range of brahmanical religion was flourishing in this period. Three important aspects of Vaishnavism and Shaivism that developed in this period were important religious developments in Brahmanical religion

2.10 Art and Patronage

Very few examples of temple architecture have survived from the Gupta period. Rock-cut Buddhist caves at Ajanta and Ellora are the best examples of architecture.

2.11 Literature

The famous Natya-Shastra of Bharata- a foundational treatise on dance, drama and poetry can possibly be dated to these times. Literary criticism and theory of Rasa emerged as an important feature of creative literature.

The notes provided are a compilation of key points, concepts, and details from the transcript, organized to facilitate study and review of the History of India from 300 CE to 1200 CE.