Openstax Chapter 3.1

Credit: Modification of work "World map blank shorelines" by Maciej Jaros/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain

By the end of this section, students will be able to:
- Discuss the attributes of early civilizations.
- Analyze the way human relationships changed with the development of urban areas.

Early civilizations developed along large rivers and were marked by:
- An agriculturally sustained population.
- Settled communities that could number in the tens of thousands.
Stability facilitated the development of discernible culture:
- Culture consists of the various ways a distinct group interacts with each other and their environment, passing these practices down generations.
The emergence of early civilizations (10,000 - 8,000 BCE) occurred in specific locations called the ‘cradles of civilization’:
- Locations include:
- Mexico
- Peru
- China
- India/Pakistan
- Iraq
- Egypt
Introduction of farming allowed for larger populations to settle.
Surplus food production led to specialization in various tasks like:
- Manufacturing handicrafts
- Spiritual leadership
- Governance

Many people post-Neolithic Revolution continued leading nomadic or seminomadic lifestyles, focusing on:
- Hunting, gathering, or herding domesticated animals.
Even in agricultural societies, the focus was on producing only enough for family survival.
Contrast with early civilizations that:
- Grew to larger populations in concentrated areas.
- Developed a surplus of food, which was distributed via exchange.
Food surplus led to increased family sizes (6-7 children) and a global population spike.
Significance of specialization in early civilizations includes:
- Different individuals performing specific tasks (e.g., farming, writing, religious rituals).
- Mutual reliance between different specialists, such as:
- Artisans depended on farmers for food.
- Farmers needed artisans for tools and clothing.
Hierarchical structures emerged:
- Accumulation of goods led to wealth, political, and religious power.
- Social stratification became pronounced, as wealth and status varied significantly between families.
- Distinct classes or strata formed based on wealth and power.

In smaller groups, decisions were made collectively through consensus among all members.
Order enforced at the family level through traditions and social responsibilities.
- Example: The San of South Africa performed ritual dances to seek guidance from ancestors.
Larger civilizations required organized governance:
- Official roles emerged (e.g., priests, kings) to enforce obedience.
- An exchange of protection and prosperity for goods (eventually including taxes).

Nomadic and seminomadic individuals remained integral, bridging connections between large cities and facilitating cultural exchange.

Agriculture domesticated wheat circa 10,000 BCE in regions known today as:
- Northern Iraq
- Southeastern Turkey
- Western Iran
- Syria and Israel
This area is referred to as the Fertile Crescent due to its shape and historical significance in agriculture.
Notable early urban areas include:
- Jericho (8300–6500 BCE) along the Jordan River (currently Palestinian Territories).
- Çatalhöyük (7200–6000 BCE) in southeastern Turkey.
- Early urban areas had populations reaching up to 6,000.

Hunter-gatherer cultures also created large architectural structures:
- Example: Monumental architecture at Göbekli Tepe in southeastern Turkey and Poverty Point in Louisiana, USA.
Neolithic settlements depended on agricultural advancements for population support.
Growth in complexity was seen in religious practices, such as:
- Bull sacrifices at Çatalhöyük and artistic endeavors like fresco creation for sacrificial sites.
Organization was required for large projects (e.g., tower at Jericho), suggesting some form of governmental structure.
Shared belief systems possibly unified communities, like ancestor veneration in Jericho or mother-deity worship in Çatalhöyük.

Historians and archaeologists study artifacts due to the lack of written records among prehistoric peoples. Challenges include:
- Differing religious and social systems complicating interpretation.
Example: The Tower of Jericho (circa 8000 BCE) took over thirty years to build and has several theories regarding its purpose:
- Defensive structure
- Religious monument
- Observatory
Example: A decorated skull from Jericho covered with plaster and embellished with shells, suggesting ancestor veneration but open to alternative interpretations.
Evidence from Çatalhöyük includes numerous bucraniums, leading to multiple interpretations of their symbolism concerning the mother-deity.

Early settlements continued emerging:
- Mehrgarh (modern Pakistan), a Neolithic site from 7000 BCE involved in long-distance trade and agriculture (barley, goats, sheep).
- Neolithic settlements in China around 8000 BCE along the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers cultivated millet and rice.
- Quick emergence of settlements in Mesoamerica and the Andes several millennia later.
Not all persisted: Çatalhöyük was abandoned by 6000 BCE, whereas Jericho faced multiple abandonments and resettlements, still active today.
Importance of these settlements lies in the understanding of agriculture's role in shaping early civilizations.

By the end of this section, students will be able to:
- Identify characteristics of civilization in Ancient Mesopotamia.
- Discuss the political history from early Sumerian city-states to Old Babylon.
- Describe the economy, society, and religion of Ancient Mesopotamia.

The world’s first great cities emerged in southern Mesopotamia (the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers) around the fourth millennium BCE.
The Sumerians, an inventive people, were significant for:
- Developments in technology, most notably a sophisticated writing system.
- Sumerian literary works survived beyond the Sumerian language's extinction by the early second millennium BCE.

The term Mesopotamia comes from Greek meaning "the land between the rivers", commonly applied to the area between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in modern Iraq.
The rivers flow from the Taurus Mountains in Eastern Turkey to the Persian Gulf, depositing fertile soil along their banks.
Agricultural practices reached Mesopotamia as early as 8000 BCE, leading to the establishment of cooperative irrigation projects to manage water flow effectively.
Initial populations were small, residing in villages of 100-200 until settlements developed from around 5500 BCE in southern Mesopotamia, eventually becoming urban centers by about 4500 BCE.