ANCIENT HISTORY - SPARTA

Spartan Society to the Battle of Leuctra 371 BC

1) The Geographical and Historical Context.

1.1) The Geographical Setting, Natural Features, and Resources.

  • GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING

    • Sparta is situated 200 m above sea level at the northern edge of the alluvial plain of Lakonia.

    • Settlements are isolated, making overland travel difficult.

    • Approximately 20% of the land is utilized for agriculture.

    • Located in the southern part of the Peloponnesian Peninsula within the Eurotas River plain.

    • "Sparta monopolised the best land and was at the intersection of major routes connecting Lakonia to the rest of the world." – FITZHARDINGE

  • NATURAL FEATURES

    • Surrounded by mountain ranges that provide natural barriers to communication:

      • Taygetus in the west,

      • Parnon in the east,

      • Arcadian mountains to the north.

    • These geographical features contributed to Sparta's isolation.

    • "Sparta remained unwalled not due to the valor of its soldiers, but because of the distance of its enemies." – FITZHARDINGE.

    • The Eurotas valley is fertile with an adequate water supply from the Eurotas river.

  • RESOURCES

    • The Eurotas river serves as a primary water source.

    • Mountains offered hunting grounds (for hare and boar) and timber.

    • Agricultural products included:

      • Barley,

      • Wheat,

      • Oats,

      • Grapes,

      • Olives.

    • Other resources included quarried marble from Mount Taygetus and use of murex mollusc from Gytheum, which provided purple dye for soldiers' cloaks.

    • Hunting consisted of wild goats, deer, and hares. – CARTLEDGE

    • "Sparta had simple but plentiful supplies of food." – XENOPHON

1.2) Significant Sites: Sparta

  • ~8th century BC: Sparta formed by the amalgamation of four villages, with archaeological evidence indicating a total of nine villages around the Eurotas River.

  • Not architecturally grand like Athens; lacked monumental temples and public edifices.

  • "Sparta looked more like a collection of rural townships than a city." – THUCYDIDES.

  • Thucydides notes that only the remnants of temples and buildings would make it hard for future generations to believe the full extent of Sparta’s power.

2) Social Structure and Political Organisation

2.1) The Great Rhetra: The Issue of Lykurgus

  • LYKURGUS

    • Allegedly lived between the 9th and 7th century BC; precise dates unknown.

    • Herodotus and Aristotle credit him with instituting new social and political organisations following the Messenian Wars.

    • Modern scholars express skepticism regarding the singular role attributed to Lykurgus in Spartan reform.

    • Notable Quotes:

      • "Whether he was a god or a man, Lykurgus was a mythical figure." – A JONES.

      • "Concerning Lykurgus… nothing can be said which is not disputed." – PLUTARCH.

      • His reforms may have been named after him for prestige.

      • Tyrtaeus, a Spartan poet, praises Sparta’s Eunomia (good order) yet omits Lykurgus.

      • Suggests that Lykurgus’s significance may have grown over time.

    • Lykurgus regarded as a revered figure; marked by temples and worship in Sparta; represented state ideologies.

  • THE GREAT RHETRA

    • Dates back to the ~7th century BC. Difficulties:

      • If Lykurgus authored it, significant oral tradition required before comprehensive writing practices emerged.

      • Involvement of the Delphic Oracle raises questions about legal authority.

    • Amendments, such as one introduced by Kings Polydoros and Theopompos, treated with skepticism regarding their timelines.

    • REFORMS attributed to Lykurgus include:

      • Creation of the agoge (educational system), military focus, and establishment of the Gerousia (Council of Elders).

      • Redistribution of land among citizens to ensure each had a kleros with associated serfs.

      • Excluded usage of coinage and maintained military ethos.

      • Women's roles and education emphasized.

      • Notably, ephors not mentioned in the Great Rhetra suggests establishment occurred later.

      • The overarching aim was to promote equality and a stable military society.

      • "Lycurgus… made his country pre-eminently prosperous." – XENOPHON.

2.2) Roles and Privileges of the Two Kings

  • SPARTAN DIARCHY: Dual kingship where one came from the Agiad dynasty and the other from the Eurypontid line, both claiming descent from Herakles.

  • Led armies during campaigns but only one at a time.

  • Government characterized as a mixed constitution:

    • Elements of democracy, oligarchy, and monarchy.

  • Kings were expected to fulfill multiple roles:

    • Chief priest,

    • Commander of the army,

    • Judge,

    • Lawgiver.

  • Kingship was hereditary and lifelong; the first-born son would inherit.

  • Special privileges included:

    • First to partake in syssitia (communal meals),

    • Possession of war booty,

    • Sacred duty to maintain oracles.

    • Bodyguard during military campaigns.

  • Role of Kings (in more detail):

    • Military: Commanded troops and received special share of war loot.

    • Religious: Conducted monthly sacrifices to the gods and were seen as bearers of good fortune.

    • Political: Could influence Gerousia's discussions but had limited judicial authority.

    • Judicial: Notable for overseeing adoptions and child marriages yet under supervision of ephors.

  • Quotes:

    • "On service the kings go first and return last." – HERODOTUS.

    • "The Spartans viewed their kings as demi-gods." – PARKER.

  • The kings had dual votes in Gerousia and monitored by ephors. Assertion of power balance was necessary to prevent tyranny and corruption.

2.3) Government: Ephorate, Gerousia, Ekklesia

  • EPHORATE

    • Composed of five ephors elected annually by the Ekklesia.

    • Represented each territorial region and enforced state laws.

    • Held supreme authority in critical state matters.

    • Responsibilities encompassed:

      • Calling meetings of the Gerousia and Ekklesia,

      • Criminal and civil adjudication,

      • Enforcement of discipline among Spartiates.

      • Additionally monitored conduct of periokoi.

    • Attributed with taking more political power post-Lykurgus, changing foreign policy dynamics.

    • Annual declaration of war on Helots for the state's preservation.

    • "Any ephor who was excessive in power risked retaliation from the king." – BUCKLEY.

  • GERUSIA

    • Comprised of male members above 60, including two kings.

    • Chosen based on merit; served for life.

    • Responsibilities:

      • Trial for capital crimes,

      • Preparing laws for Ekklesia voting.

      • Appointments were not controlled or accountable, fostering criticisms of favoritism.

    • Held real power and controlled legislative processes.

  • EKKLESIA

    • Assembly of all eligible Spartiates.

    • Power to declare war, ratify treaties, and select military leaders but not propose legislation.

    • Voting was by acclamation only; presided by gerontes and king(s).

2.4) Social Structure and Occupations: Spartiates, Perioikoi, ‘Inferiors’, Helots

  • SPARTIATES/HOMOIOIS

    • Full Spartan citizens under strict conditions:

      • Male,

      • Born to Spartan parents,

      • Completed agoge,

      • Contributed to syssitia,

      • Held a kleros, land parcel.

    • Uniquely privileged but forbidden from farming; maintained through state support.

  • PERIOIKOI

    • "Dwellers around" or surrounding communities; not citizens.

    • Economic role included manufacturing goods that Spartans could not produce.

    • Autonomous yet lacked the same rights; reported to Ephors with limited obligations.

    • Had lands allotted (often 30,000), forming the backbone of Spartan trade and manufacture.

    • Wealth and trade increased over time as Spartiates withdrew from economic life.

  • INFERIORS

    • Individuals who lost citizenship or never qualified but did not fall into Helot or Perioikoi categories.

    • Included various groups associated with diminished social status.

    • Cowardliness in battle led to restrictions and humiliation.

  • HELOTS

    • Comprised approximately 70% of the population; state-owned serfs.

    • Worked land on behalf of Spartiate owners, giving up a significant portion of their harvest.

    • Considered a constant source of concern for revolts, with cycles of repression in place.

    • Notable landmark in Spartan society and economy as primary labor force.

    • "Half-slave, half-free." – POLLUX.

2.5) The Spartan Army: Training (Agoge), Composition

  • TRAINING (AGOGE)

    • Formed the foundational education and training model aimed at molding Spartan boys into elite soldiers.

    • Developed principles such as courage and discipline essential for military efficacy.

    • Educated in physical fitness and military tactics, boys were deliberately underfed to cultivate self-sufficiency.

    • Stages of Agoge:

      • From ages 7-12: Induction; breaking familial ties.

      • From ages 13-18: Intensive training under strict codes.

      • From ages 18-20: Could participate in krypteia (secret patrol).

      • From ages 20-24: Graduated members allowed to marry while still residing in barracks.

      • From ages 24-30: Became fully-fledged hoplites; still not citizens; main role in military action.

      • From ages 30-60: Spartiates with full rights; can join Gerousia after turning 60.

      • Rites of Passage:

      • KRYPTEIA: Young men tasked with hunting Helots to test their skills in dealing with death.

      • FESTIVAL OF ARTEMIS ORTHIA: Endurance trial involving whipping by Eirenes while retrieving stolen cheese.

  • COMPOSITION

    • Spartan army exemplified an elite force designed for combat within phalanx formations.

    • Hoplite soldiers equipped with advanced arms and armor:

      • Hoplon shields, bronze breastplates, greaves, and long spear.

    • Lack of cavalry and traditional ranged weaponry to maintain focus on maneuvering in phalanx.

    • Spartan military reinforced largely by support from Perioikoi and Helots.

2.6) Control of The Helots: The Military, Syssitia, Krypteia

  • Control mechanisms were essential for preventing revolts, fostered fear-driven policies enhancing Spartiates’ military preparedness.

  • Syssitia, the communal meal structure, served to encourage conformity and communal solidarity, with food provided largely by Helots.

  • Krypteia represented a covert police force, targeting troublesome Helots.

  • Military commitment to suppress helot revolts called for a constant presence of soldiers at home, establishing domestic control.

2.7) Role and Status of Women: Land Ownership, Inheritance, Education

  • Spartan women enjoyed greater freedoms and privileges compared to their contemporaries across Greek city-states.

  • They managed family lands and inherited properties due to the frequent absence of men.

  • Societal roles highlighted a focus on producing strong offspring, paralleling military values that governed broader Spartan society.

  • Education for women promoted physical fitness, with athleticism prioritized over domestic chores traditionally assigned to helots.

  • Land Ownership and Inheritance:

    • Daughters served as heirs if no sons were present, and women could control their inherited properties after marriage.

  • Education: Included physical training and participation in athletic competitions.

3) The Economy, Including:

3.1) Land Ownership: Agricultural, Kleroi, Helots

  • Geographically, Lakonia noted for its fertile farming lands, allowing Spartan society to thrive agriculturally.

  • Kleroi represented land parcels allocated to Spartiates, maintained through taxation of Helots.

  • Wealth Disparities: Land ownership was unequal, resulting in social divisions among Spartiates,
    with growing inequalities noted throughout Spartan history.

3.2) Technology: Weapons, Armour, Pottery

  • Weapons and Armour: Production primarily handled by the Perioikoi, emphasizing Sparta's military-centric manufacturing.

  • Recognized for excellent quality, numerous archaeological discoveries document sophisticated craftsmanship in bronze and pottery from Lakonia.

  • Indications of pottery utilized in overseas trade, illustrating Sparta's commercial interactions.

3.3) Economic Roles of the Perioikoi and Helots

  • Perioikoi served as economic backbone, engaging in trade and manufacturing, monopolizing local commerce.

  • Helots fulfilled necessary agricultural tasks, freeing Spartiates for military duties while legally bound to provide portions of their produce to landowners.

3.4) Economic Exchange: Use of Iron Bars, Trade

  • Iron bars were designated to discourage luxury expenditures and foster military efficiency among Spartiates.

  • Emphasis on iron currency reflected economic practices aligned with Spartan values, limiting wealth accumulation that might foster disparity.

4) Religion, Death, and Burial, Including:

4.1) Gods and Goddesses: Artemis Orthia, Poseidon, Apollo

  • Significant deities included Artemis, Poseidon, and Apollo, adored through various sanctuaries.

4.2) Myths and Legends: Lykurgus and The Dioscuri

  • Lykurgus (mythical lawgiver) linked with Spartan reform and governance, and the Dioscuri — twins of Zeus critical to Spartan identity.

4.3) Festivals: Hyakinthia, Gymnopaedia, Karneia

  • Various festivals celebrated agricultural cycles and military strength; notable events often included athletic and sacrifice observances.

4.4) Religious Role of The Kings

  • Kings served as primary priests, overseeing significant religious practices and sacrifices crucial for society's stability and military success.

4.5) Funerary Customs and Rituals

  • Marked graves for battle heroes and childbirth victims; rituals centered on valor and sacrifice underpinning Spartan funeral customs.

5) Cultural and Everyday Life, Including:

5.1) Art: Sculpture, Painted Vases, Bone and Ivory Carving

  • Declined artistry intersected with military priorities; however, craftsmanship continued among non-Spartiates.

5.2) Architecture: Amyklaion, Menelaion, the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia

  • Notable shrines and sites reflecting Spartan religious practices and community events catered to Apollo and local deities.

5.3) Writing and Literature: Alcman and Tyrtaeus

  • Poetry reflecting values of nationalism and military ethos; participation in cultural life among Spartan youth fostered bonding experiences.

5.4) Greek Writers’ Views of Sparta: Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Aristotle, Pausanius, Plutarch

  • Varied portrayals from admiration to criticism, providing contrasting insights into Spartan culture and governance.

5.5) Leisure Activities

  • Diverse activities highlighted competitive spirit among Spartans, including hunting and athletics, fostering communal ties and military values.

5.6) Marriage Customs

  • Strategic marriages arranged focused on strength and procreation; women played pivotal roles in familial lineage and societal cohesion.