609f602ab8c522d2fbb74495_SS-AP-World-History

TOPIC 1.1 Developments in East Asia from c. 1200 to c. 1450

• Significance of the Song Dynasty (960-1279):
  • Great wealth, political stability, and artistic/intellectual innovations.
  • Greatest manufacturing capability in the world.
  • Shifted from local production to market production, becoming the world’s most commercialized society.
  • Buddhism and Confucianism spread.
  • Expanded bureaucracy through meritocracy, allowing for greater social mobility.
• Economic Developments in Postclassical China:
  • The Grand Canal: Efficient waterway transportation system, enabled China to become the most populous trading area in the world.
  • Gunpowder: Technology of gunpowder and guns spread from China to all parts of Eurasia via traders on the Silk Roads.
  • Agriculture: Elaborate irrigation systems and heavy plows pulled by water buffalo/oxen increased productivity, leading to increased food production and population growth.
  • Tributes: Arrangement for income in which other states paid money/goods to honor the Chinese emperor.
• Social Structures in China:
  • The Song government provided aid to the poor and established public hospitals.
  • Women were expected to defer to men, exemplified by foot binding.
• Religious Diversity in China:
  • Buddhism came to China from India via the Silk Roads.
    • Three forms of Buddhism shaped Asia: Theravada Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism, and Tibetan Buddhism.
    • Followed the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
  • Neo-Confucianism: Evolved between 770-840, syncretic system combining rational thought with Daoism and Buddhism.

JAPAN

• Feudalism:
  • For hundreds of years, Japan had been a feudal society without a centralized government.
  • Landowning aristocrats (daimyo) battled for land control, the majority worked as rice farmers.
• Government:
  • In 1192, the Minamoto installed a shogun (military ruler) to reign.
  • For four centuries, Japan suffered from regional rivalries among aristocrats.
  • Shoguns did not create a strong central government that unified the country until the 17th century.

KOREA

• Connection to China:
  • Korea's location provided a direct relationship with China and had a tributary relationship.
  • Centralized its government in the style of the Chinese.
  • Culturally adopted both Confucian and Buddhist beliefs.
• Aristocracy:
  • Unlike China, Korea maintained a more powerful landed aristocracy, preventing social mobility.

VIETNAM

• Social Structures:
  • Vietnamese women enjoyed greater independence compared to Chinese women (Confucian tradition).
  • Vietnamese preferred nuclear families (father, mother, and children in one household).
  • Vietnamese villages operated independently of the national government; political centralization was nonexistent.
  • Adopted a merit-based bureaucracy of educated men, but officials owed allegiance to the village peasants instead of the emperor.

TOPIC 1.2 Developments in Dar al-Islam from c. 1200 to c. 1450

• Innovations:
  • Advances in mathematics: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi laid the groundwork for making trigonometry a separate subject.
  • Advances in literature: ‘A’ishah al-Ba’uniyyah was a prolific female Muslim writer, known for her works describing her journey towards mystical illumination.
  • Advances in medicine: Improved medical care and hospitals in cities like Cairo. Doctors and pharmacists required licenses.
• Social Structures:
  • Islamic society viewed merchants as more prestigious than did other societies in Europe and Asia.
  • Merchants grew rich from dealings across the Indian Ocean and Central Asia with the revival of trade on Silk Roads.
  • Muslim women enjoyed a higher status than Christian or Jewish women:
    • Allowed to inherit property and retain ownership after marriage.
    • Could remarry if widowed.
    • Could receive a cash settlement if divorced.
    • Women could practice birth control.
• Transfers:
  • Preservation and commentaries on Greek moral and natural philosophy in the House of Wisdom in Abbasid Baghdad.
  • Scholarly and cultural transfers in Muslim and Christian Spain.
• Islamic Rule in Spain:
  • In 711, Muslim forces successfully invaded Spain.
  • Muslims ruled Spain for seven centuries while most of the continent remained Christian.
  • Umayyad rulers in Córdoba created a climate of toleration among Muslims, Christians, and Jews.
  • Promoted trade, allowing Chinese and Southeast Asian products to enter.

TOPIC 1.3 Developments in South and Southeast Asia from c. 1200 to c. 1450

• SOUTH ASIA

  • Political Structures in South Asia:
    • Southern India was more stable than northern India. The Chola Dynasty reigned over southern India for over 400 years (850-1267).
    • Northern India experienced more upheaval. After the fall of the Gupta Empire, the Rajput kingdoms gradually formed in northern India and present-day Pakistan.
    • The Delhi Sultanate brought Islam into India and reigned for 300 years (13th through 16th centuries).
  • Religion in South Asia:
    • Before Islam, most South Asians practiced Hinduism.
    • Differences between Hinduism and Islam:
      • Hindus pray to many gods, while Muslims are strictly monotheistic.
      • Hindu artwork and temples are filled with pictures of deities, while Muslims disapprove of any visual representation of Allah.
      • Hinduism was associated with a hierarchical caste system, while Islam has always called for the equality of all believers.
      • Hindus recognize several sacred texts, while Muslims look to only the Quran for spiritual guidance.
  • Social Structures in South Asia:
    • Islam did little to alter the basic structure of society in South Asia.
    • Most who tried to escape the caste system failed.
    • India’s caste system is its strongest historical continuity.
    • The Bhakti Movement: drew upon traditional teachings about the importance of emotion in spiritual life, emphasizing attachment to a particular deity rather than rituals/texts.

• SOUTHEAST ASIA

  • South Asia strongly influenced its neighbors, particularly the lands of Southeast Asia.
  • Sea-Based Kingdoms:
    • The Srivijaya Empire (670-1025) was a Hindu kingdom based on Sumatra. Prospered by building up its navy and charging fees for ships traveling between India and China.
    • The Majapahit Kingdom (1293-1520) based on Java had 98 tributaries at its height. It controlled sea routes and was Buddhist.
  • Land-Based Kingdoms:
    • The Sinhala dynasties in Sri Lanka had roots in the arrival of merchants from northern India.
    • Buddhists arrived in the 3rd century BCE, and the island became a hub of Buddhist study.
    • The Khmer Empire (802-1431) was situated near the Mekong River and was not dependent on maritime prowess. Complex irrigation and drainage systems led to economic prosperity.

TOPIC 1.4 State Building in the Americas

• The Mississippian Culture:
  • First large-scale civilization in North America, starting in the Mississippi River Valley.
  • Society had a rigid class structure and a matrilineal society
• The Maya City-States:
  • Mayan civilization reached its height between 250 and 900 CE.
  • Stretched over Mexico and much of what is now Belize, Honduras, and Guatemala.
  • The city-state was the main source of Mayan government, each ruled by a king.
  • Each Mayan king claimed divine right.
  • Mayan science and religion were linked through astronomy.
• The Aztecs:
  • Originally hunter-gatherers who migrated to central Mexico from the north in the 1200s.
  • In 1325, they founded their capital Tenochtitlan on the site of what is now Mexico City.
  • Built a network of aqueducts and a pyramid that rose $150$ feet into the air.
  • Developed a tributary system.
  • The Aztec government was a theocracy.
  • Worshipped hundreds of deities and involved human sacrifices.
  • Women played an important role in the Aztec tribute system by making cloth.
• The Inca:
  • The Incan Empire was split into four provinces, each with its own bureaucracy.
  • Subject to the mit’a system, mandatory public service, instead of a tributary system.
  • Inca means “people of the sun,” and Inti, the sun god, was the most important.
  • Priests diagnosed illnesses, solved crimes, predicted outcomes of battles, and determined what sacrifices should be made.
  • Developed sophisticated terrace systems for cultivation of crops like potatoes and maize.
  • The Spanish conquered the core of the empire in 1533.

TOPIC 1.5 State Building in Africa

• Political Structures in Inland Africa:
  • Development of Sub-Saharan Africa was heavily formed by Bantu-speaking people migrations.
  • Communities formed kin-based networks, where families governed themselves.
  • Groups of villages became districts, and chiefs decided how to solve district problems.
• Political Structures of West and East Africa:
  • Exchange of goods brought wealth, political power, and cultural diversity.
  • Islam added to religious diversity alongside animism and Christianity.
  • Mali: New trading societies arose, the most powerful of which was Mali in the 12th century as wars weakened the Ghanaian state.
  • Zimbabwe: Built prosperity on agriculture, grazing, trade, and gold. Had rich gold fields.
  • Ethiopia: Flourished by trading goods obtained from India, Arabia, the Roman Empire, and the interior of Africa, after Christianity spread from the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea.
• Social Structures of Sub-Saharan Africa:
  • Small communities were organized around kinship, age, and gender.
  • Men dominated activities requiring specialized skills.
  • Women generally engaged in agriculture and food gathering.
  • Prisoners of war, debtors, and criminals were often enslaved; owning more enslaved people increased social status.
  • Strong demand in the Middle East for enslaved workers led to an Indian Ocean slave trade between East Africa and the Middle East.
• Cultural Life in Sub-Saharan Africa:
  • Traditional African religions included ancestor veneration; song lyrics communicated with the spirit world.
  • African music had a distinguished rhythmic pattern with vocals and percussive elements.
  • Visual arts commonly served a religious purpose.
  • Griots (storytellers) were the conduits of history for a community.

TOPIC 1.6 Developments in Europe from c. 1200 to c. 1450

• Feudalism: Political and Social Systems:
  • Feudalism provided security for peasants, equipment for warriors, and land to those who worked for a lord.
  • Wealth was measured in land rather than in cash.
  • The manorial system provided economic self-sufficiency and defense, limiting the need for trade and contact with outsiders.
• Political Trends in the Later Middle Ages:
  • Monarchies grew more powerful at the expense of feudal lords by employing their own bureaucracy and military.
  • King Philip II of France was the first to develop a real bureaucracy.
  • The Estates-General was a body that advised the king, including representatives from the clergy, nobility, and commoners.
  • The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) between England and France stimulated a sense of unity among soldiers.
• Roman Catholic Church during the Middle Ages:
  • In 1054, the Christian Church split into Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox (Great Schism).
  • The Church established the first universities in Europe.
  • Most philosophers, writers, and thinkers of the Middle Ages were religious leaders.
  • The Church held great power in the feudal system, with an extensive hierarchy of regional leaders.
  • Wealth and political power led to corruption in the church in the 13th and 14th centuries.
• Christian Crusades:
  • Europeans sought to reclaim the Holy Land (Palestine) containing sites of spiritual significance.
  • Economic and social trends of the 11th century added pressure among Europeans to invade the Middle East.
  • The combination of religious, social, and economic pressures resulted in the Crusades: European military campaigns in the Middle East (1095- l200s).
• Economic and Social Change:
  • The middle class (bourgeoisie) began to grow and included shopkeepers, craftspeople, merchants, and small landholders.
  • Renewed commerce led to larger cities and promoted growth of towns and markets.
  • Anti-Semitism was widespread among Christians; Jews were expelled from England (1290), France (1394), Spain (1492), and Portugal (1497).
  • Muslims faced discrimination in Europe; the Spanish king expelled Muslims who would not convert to Christianity in 1492.
  • Urbanization led to a loss of rights for women due to patriarchal thinking and writing.
• Renaissance:
  • A period of revival of interest in classical Greek and Roman literature, culture, art, and civic virtue.
  • Johannes Gutenberg’s movable-type printing press permitted mass production of manuscripts, leading to increased literacy and spread of ideas.
  • Humanism, focus on individuals rather than God, sought education and reform.

TOPIC 1.7 Comparisons in the Period from c. 1200 to c. 1450

• State-Building and New Empires:
  • The Song Dynasty in China continued progressing.
  • The Abbasid Caliphate in the Middle East was fragmented by invaders.
  • Rulers of Mali created a more centralized government.
  • The Aztecs used a tributary system, and the Incas used the mit’a system.
  • Feudal ties reduced in Western European kingdoms, but not in Eastern Europe.
  • Japan became more decentralized and feudal.
• Four Types of State-Building (c.1200-c.1450):
  • Emergence of New States: States arising on land once controlled by another empire (Mamluk Empire, Seljuk Empire, Delhi Sultanate).
  • Revival of Former Empires: New leadership continuing or rebuilding a previous empire (Song Dynasty, Mali Empire, Holy Roman Empire).
  • Synthesis of Different Traditions: States adapting foreign ideas to local conditions (Japan, Delhi Sultanate, Neo-Confucianism).
  • Expansion in Scope: Existing states expanding influence through conquest, trade, or other means (Incas, Aztecs, East Africa city-states, Southeast Asia city-states).
• State-Building through Trade:
  • Increased trade powered cross-cultural exchanges of technology and innovation.
  • Paper manufacturing, invented in China, spread across Eurasia, increasing literacy rates.
  • Europe benefited from exchanges with the Middle East and Asia.
• Patriarchy and Religion:
  • Social organization remained patriarchal in most cultures but varied.
  • Convent life for Christians in Europe and Jainism and Buddhist religious communities in South Asia provided opportunities for learning and leadership for women.
  • In China, women lost independence as foot binding became more common.

Unit 2: Network of Exchange: 8%-10% of the AP test (c. 1200 to c. 1450)

• TOPIC 2.1 The Silk Roads

  • Causes of the Growth of Exchange Networks:
    • The Crusades helped pave the way to expanding networks of exchange, as lords and their armies of knights brought back fabrics and spices from the East.
    • Rise of the Mongol Empire:
      • Parts of the Silk Roads that were under the authority of different rulers were, for the first time, unified in a system under the control of an authority that respected merchants and enforced laws.
      • The Mongols improved roads and punished bandits, both of which increased the safety of travel on the Silk Roads.
    • Improvements in Transportation:
      • Saddles for camels
      • Centuries earlier, China had made advances in naval technology (rudder and magnetic compass)
  • Effects of the Growth of Exchange Networks:
    • Cities along the routes that were watered by rivers became centers of trade.
    • To manage the increasing trade, China developed new financial systems. The copper coins they used became too unwieldy to transport for everyday transactions, so the government developed a system of credit known as flying cash.
    • The growing demand for luxury goods from Afro-Eurasia, China, Persia, and India led to a corresponding increase in the supply of those goods through expanded production.
    • Increased demand also led to the expansion of iron and steel manufactured in China, motivating its proto-industrialization.

• TOPIC 2.2 The Mongol Empire and the Making of the Modern World

  • Genghis Khan:
    • In 1210, Genghis Khan and his troops headed east and attacked the powerful Jin Empire.
    • In 1219, Khan conquered both the Central Asian Kara Khitai Empire and the Islamic Khwarazm Empire farther west.
    • By 1227, Genghis Khan’s kingdom reached from the North China Sea to eastern Persia.
    • Mongolian soldiers were strong riders and proficient with the short bow.
    • He instituted a policy of religious tolerance throughout the empire, which was unusual in the l3th century.
    • New trade channels were also established between Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe.
  • Mongolian Empire Expands:
    • Three of Genghis Khan's grandsons set up their own kingdoms, further expanding the empire into Asia and Europe.
    • ln 1236, Batu, the son of Khan’s oldest son, led a Mongolian army of $100,000$ soldiers into Russia, which at the time was a loose network of city-states and principalities. Batu’s army, which came to be known as the Golden Horde, conquered Russian kingdoms and forced them to pay tributes.
    • Resistance to the Mongols created the foundation for future modern Russian state.
  • The Long-Term Impact of the Mongolian Invasions:
    • Their empire was the largest continuous land empire in history.
    • The Mongols built a system of roads and continued to maintain and guard the trade routes.
    • The Mongols transferred Greco-Islamic medical knowledge and the Arabic numbering system to Western Europe.
    • After the Mongols declined in power, the kingdoms and states of Europe, Asia, and Southeast Asia continued or copied the process of centralizing power.
    • Mongol fighting techniques led to the end of Western Europe’s use of knights in armor.

• TOPIC 2.3 Exchange in the Indian Ocean

  • Causes of Expanded Exchange in the Indian Ocean:

    • Spread of Islam: the expansion of Islam connected more cities than ever before.
    • Increased demand for specialized products
    • Trade of enslaved people also played a role in exchanges in the Indian Ocean.
    • Advances in maritime technology
    • Growth of States: The trading networks in the Indian Ocean fostered the growth of states to help institutionalize the revenue from trade.

  • Effects of Expanded Exchange in the Indian Ocean:

    • Some of the very factors that caused expansion of exchange networks in the Indian Ocean also, in time, became effects.

    • Diasporic Communities: As a natural result of waiting for favorable winds for travel, these merchants interacted with the surrounding cultures and peoples of the region.

    • Increased demand for products caused trade to expand. At the same time, however, it resulted in several effects with long-lasting impact.

    • Swahili City-States: The Indian Ocean trade also created thriving city-states along the east coast of Africa, sometimes known as the Swahili city-states.

      • Trade brought considerable wealth to the cities on the East African coast.

• TOPIC 2.4 Trans-Saharan Trade Routes

  • Trans-Saharan Trade:
    • By the end of the 8th century C.E., the trans-Saharan trade had become famous throughout Europe and Asia.
    • Gold was the most precious commodity traded.
    • For more than 700 years, trans-Saharan trade brought considerable wealth to the societies of West Africa, particularly the kingdoms of Ghana and Mali.
    • Merchants also brought Islam, which spread into Sub-Saharan Africa as a result.
  • West African Empire Expansion:
    • The government of Mali profited from the gold trade, but it also taxed nearly all other trade entering West Africa.
    • The great cities of Timbuktu and Gao accumulated the most wealth and developed into centers of Muslim life in the region.
    • The growth in trade and wealth gave rise to the need to administer and maintain it (such as establishing currencies).

• TOPIC 2.5 Cultural Consequences of Connectivity

  • Influence of Buddhism on East Asian Culture:
    • Buddhism came to China from its birthplace in India via the Silk Roads, and the 7th- century Buddhist monk Xuanzang helped make it popular.
    • Japan and Korea also adopted Buddhism, along with Confucianism.
    • In Korea the educated elite studied Confucian classics, while Buddhist doctrine attracted the peasants.
  • Spread of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam:
    • Through trade, the Indian religions of Hinduism and Buddhism made their way to Southeast Asia as well.
    • The sea-based Srivijaya Empire on Sumatra was a Hindu kingdom, while the later Majapahit Kingdom on Java was Buddhist.
    • Through merchants, missionaries, and conquests, Islam spread over a wide swath of Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.
  • Scientific and Technological Innovations:
    • Along with religion, science and technology traveled the trade routes.
    • Islamic scholars translated Greek literary classics into Arabic, saving the works of Aristotle and other Greek thinkers.
    • Scholars also brought back mathematics texts from India and techniques for papermaking from China.
    • They made advances in hospital care, including surgery.

• TOPIC 2.6 Environmental Consequences of Connectivity

  • Agricultural Effects of Exchange Networks:
    • As the population of China grew, people tended to migrate southward to the original Champa rice growing region, contributing to the growth of cities.
    • Environmental Degradation: Increases in population put pressure on resources.
    • For example, overgrazing outside of Great Zimbabwe was so severe that people had to abandon the city in the late 1400s.
  • Spread of Epidemics through Exchange Networks:
    • The Mongol conquests helped to transmit the fleas that carried the Bubonic Plague (AKA the Black Death) from southern China to Central Asia, and from there to Southeast Asia and Europe.
    • The Black Death had a tremendous impact on Europe, killing one-third of the population there in a few years.
    • About 25 million Chinese and other Asians died between 1332 and 1347

• TOPIC 2.7 Comparison of Economic Exchange

  • Similarities among Networks of Exchange:
    • The Silk Roads through the Gobi Desert and mountain passes through China and Central Asia to Southwest Asia and Europe, on which merchants tended to specialize in luxury goods
    • The monsoon-dependent trade routes in the Indian Ocean linking East Asia with Southeast Asia, South Asia, and Southwest Asia allowed merchants to exchange goods that were too heavy to transport by land
    • The trans-Saharan trade routes from North Africa and the Mediterranean Basin across the desert to West and East Africa were where merchants traded salt from North Africa with gold from the kingdoms south of the desert
  • Exchange Effects:
    • The trade routes all gave rise to trading cities, the “knots” that held the network together.
    • The growth of trading cities gave rise to another effect of the trade networks: centralization.
    • Trading cities along each of the trade routes underwent developments, using their wealth to keep the routes and the cities safe.
    • Another aspect of trade in the cities that encouraged centralization was the desire for a standardized currency. Widely accepted currencies sped up transactions and enabled merchants to measure the value of products.

Unit 3: Land-Based Empires: 12%-15% of the AP test (c. 1200 to c. 1450)

• TOPIC 3.1 Empires Expand

  • The Gunpowder Empires refers to large, multiethnic states in Southwest, Central, and South Asia that relied on firearms to conquer and control territories
  • Included the Russian, Ottoman, Safavid, and the Mughal Empires.
  • The mid-1400s saw the end of a wave of plagues, the conclusion of the Hundred Years’ War between France and England, and the invention of the Gutenberg printing press followed by an increase in literacy

• Russia

  • Russia remained tightly linked to Europe. Its capital—whether Kiev, St. Petersburg, or Moscow—was located in Europe.
  • Although a product of Mongol influence from Central Asia to the east, Russia was also a product of Europe as a result of Viking invasions and trading.
  • When Ivan IV (ruled 1547—1584), called Ivan the Terrible, was crowned tsar in 1547, he immediately set about to expand the Russian border eastward

• East Asia

  • China’s Yuan Dynasty, founded by Mongol invader Kublai Khan in 1271, was overthrown by the Ming Dynasty in 1368 after less than a century in power.
  • During the Ming era, the Portuguese and other Europeans arrived, aiming to encroach on the Asian trade network.
  • In 1644, the powerful Manchu from neighboring Manchuria seized power and established the Qing Dynasty, which ruled until 1911.
  • During both of these dynasties, Japan and Korea experienced parallel developments but with unique aspects.

• Rise of the Islamic Gunpowder Empires

  • The warrior leaders of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires shared many traits besides being Muslims:
    • They descended from Turkic nomads who once lived in Central Asia.
    • They spoke a Turkic language.
    • They took advantage of power vacuums left by the breakup of Mongol khanates.
    • They relied on gunpowder weapons, such as artillery and cannons.

• TOPIC 3.2 Empires: Administration

  • Centralizing Control in Europe:
    • England’s King James believed in the divine right of kings, a common claim from the Middle Ages that the right to rule was given to a king by God.
    • In England, the Tudors (ruled 1485—1603) relied on the “justices of the peace”, which were officials selected by the landed gentry to maintain peace in the counties of England.
    • In contrast to developments in England, the French government became more absolute— directed by one source of power, the king, with complete authority—in the 17th and 18th centuries. (EX: Henry IV, Louis VIII, Louis XIV)
  • Reigning in Control of the Russian Empire:
    • The noble landowning class, the boyars, stood at the top of the social pyramid. Below them were the merchants. Last and most numerous were the peasants, who would gradually sink more and more deeply into debt and, as a result, into serfdom.
    • Peter the Great: The Romanov Dynasty took control of Russia in 1613 after a period of turmoil following Ivan’s death in 1584.
      • Peter would eventually lose the support of the Russian clergy over his reforms.
      • Later in his reign, Peter reorganized the Russian government by creating provinces (first 8 and later 50 administrative divisions).
      • Provincial officials received a salary, replacing the old system of local officials “feeding off the land”
  • Legitimizing Power through Religion and Art:
    • St. Petersburg: In the mid-18th century, workers built the famous Winter Palace designed in a European rather than Byzantine style to show Peter’s admiration of western Europe and its rulers.
    • Askia the Great of Songhai: Askia made Islam Songhai’s official religion in an attempt to unite his empire. In addition to legitimizing his rule through promoting Islam, he also supported an efficient bureaucracy to bring the empire together.
  • Ottoman Architectural and Artistic Achievements:
    • Istanbul remained a center of arts and learning.
    • Poets and scholars from across Asia met in coffeehouses and gardens. They discussed works by Aristotle and other Greek writers, as well as the works of many Arabic scholars.
    • Cultural contributions of the Ottomans included the restoration of some of the glorious buildings of Constantinople, most notably the cathedral of Saint Sophia.

• TOPIC 3.3 Empires: Belief Systems

  • Protestant Reformation

    • Lutheranism: A German monk named Martin Luther concluded that several traditional Church practices violated biblical teachings.

      • He objected to the sale of indulgences, which granted a person absolution from the punishments for sin, and to simony, the selling of church offices.
      • Luther challenged the Church by nailing his 95 Theses, to a church door.
      • Luther advocated for the theological stance of “sola fide,” faith alone, for the basis of salvation for the Christian believer.

    • Calvinism: In 1536, John Calvin authored The Institutes of the Christian Religion and helped reform the religious community in Geneva, Switzerland.

      • The elect, those predestined to go to heaven, ran the community, which was based on plain living, simple church buildings, and governance by the elders of the church.
      • Calvin’s followers in France were called Huguenots.

    • Anglicanism: The last of the three major figures of the Reformation was England’s King Henry VIII (ruled 1509-1547).

      • Henry asked the pope to annul his marriage so he could marry another woman, Anne Boleyn, but the pope refused.
      • Henry, with the approval of the English Parliament, set himself up as head of the new Church of England, or Anglican Church—one that would be free of control by the pope in Rome.

  • Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reformation

    • A three part strategy to maintain Catholicism as the largest Christian denomination in the world:
      • The Church increased the use of the Inquisition to root out and punish nonbelievers.
      • The Jesuits, or Society of Jesus, a religious order founded in 1540 by Ignatius of Loyola, also opposed the spread of Protestantism. The Jesuits undertook missionary activity throughout the Spanish Empire as well as in Japan and India.
      • The Council of Trent (1545—1563) corrected some of the worst of the Church’s abuses and concentrated on reaffirming the rituals and improving the education of priests.

  • Wars of Religion

    • Germany: Conflict between Lutherans and the Holy Roman Empire resulted in the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, which allowed each German state to choose whether its ruler would be Catholic or Lutheran. As a result, churches and inhabitants were forced to practice the state religion.

    • France: Henry issued the Edict of Nantes, which allowed the Huguenots to practice their faith. The edict provided religious toleration in France

    • Thirty Years’ War: The final great religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants in Europe culminated in the Thirty Years’ War (1618—1648), which led to economic catastrophe for most of the continent.

      • The war culminated in the Peace of Westphalia, which allowed each area of the Holy Roman Empire to select one of three religious options: Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, or Calvinism.

  • Scientific Revolution

    • In the early 1600s, scientific thinking gained popularity in northern Europe as trends in Renaissance ideas, curiosity, investigation, and discovery spread.
    • In 1620, English scientist and philosopher Francis Bacon developed an early scientific method called empiricism, which insisted upon the collection of data to back up a hypothesis.
    • Sir Isaac Newton, combining Galileo’s laws of terrestrial motion and Johannes Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, published a work on gravitational force called Principia (1687).

• TOPIC 3.4 Comparison in Land-Based Empires

  • Military Might
    • Both the Ottoman sultan and Safavid shah used slave soldiers to offset the power of troops who had more loyalty to their tribe or local governor than to the sultan or shah.
    • Both the Janissaries and the Ghulams were often recruited from minority religious or ethnic groups found within the empires.
    • The Ottoman Empire and Safavid Empire went to war over the territorial claims each had at its border.
  • Centralized Bureaucracy
    • Ottoman Empire: placed taxes on non-Muslims and on peasants
    • Safavid Empire: taxation policies were used to encourage adherence to Shi’a
    • Mughal Empire:
    • placed taxes on unbelievers were abolished by Akbar but reinstalled later: also placed taxes on peasants
    • The Ming Empire: issued paper currency as a means to facilitate trade and tax collection; however the use of paper money led to rampant counterfeiting and hyperinflation

Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnections: 12%-15% of the AP test (c. 1200 to c. 1450)

• TOPIC 4.1 Technological Innovations from 1450 to 1750

  • Developments of Transoceanic Travel and Trade:

    • The voyages by Columbus connected people across the Atlantic Ocean. European traders became go-betweens linking Afro-Eurasia and the Americas.

      • From the Americas, they obtained sugar, tobacco, and rum.
      • From Africa, they obtained enslaved people.
      • From Asia, they obtained silk spices and rhubarb.

  • Classical, Islamic, and Asian Technology:

    • Portuguese ruler Prince Henry the Navigator strongly supported exploration. He financed expeditions along Africa’s Atlantic Coast and around the Cape of Good Hope.
    • Newton’s discovery of gravitation increased knowledge of the tides. As a result, sailors could reliably predict when the depth of water near a shore would be decreasing, thereby exposing dangerous rocks.
    • Improvements in cartography also improved navigation.