Introductory Psychology Cram Packet Flashcards
Unit Zero – Research Design Basic Vocabulary
Hypothesis: A tentative explanation that must be FALSIFIABLE, meaning it must be able to be supported or rejected through research.
Operational Definition: A clear, precise, and quantifiable definition of variables. This allows for the replication of studies and the collection of reliable data.
Qualitative data: Data that is descriptive in nature, such as eye color.
Quantitative data: Data that is numerical. This is considered IDEAL for research and is necessary for performing statistics.
Population: The entire group of people that the research could potentially apply to.
Sample: The specific person or group of people chosen to participate in a study.
Research Designs
CORRELATION: A design used to identify the relationship between two variables. - Advantage: It is useful in situations where conducting an experiment would be unethical. - Disadvantage: CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION. - Directionality problem: It is difficult to determine the direction of the relationship (e.g., does depression cause low self-esteem, or does low self-esteem cause depression, or is there a third variable?). - Third variable problem: A different, unmeasured variable may be responsible for the relationship (e.g., the correlation between ice cream sales and murder rates is actually due to heat). - Positive Correlation: As one variable increases, the other increases; as one decreases, the other decreases. - Negative Correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases. - Strength: The stronger the absolute value of the number, the stronger the relationship, REGARDLESS of the positive/negative sign. The correlation coefficient cannot be less than or greater than . - Visualization: Stronger relationships are represented by tighter clusters of data points on a scatterplot graph.
EXPERIMENTS: A design where variables are purposefully manipulated to determine cause and effect. - Advantage: This is the only research type that establishes cause and effect. - Disadvantages: Can be unethical or too artificial in setup. - Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is purposefully altered by the researcher to look for an effect. - Experimental Group: The group that receives the treatment (part of the IV). There can be multiple experimental groups. - Control Group: The group that receives a placebo or represents the baseline (part of the IV). There can only be one control group. - Dependent Variable (DV): The variable that is measured in the experiment. It is DEPENDENT on the independent variable.
Vocabulary Unique to Experiments: - Placebo Effect: Any observed effect on behavior that is "caused" by a placebo (an inactive substance). It is used to show the effectiveness of the experimental treatment. - Double-Blind: An experiment where neither the participant nor the experimenter knows which condition the people are assigned to. Often used in drug studies. - Single-Blind: An experiment where only the participant is unaware of their assignment. This is used if the experimenter cannot be blind (e.g., variables like gender or age). - Confound: An error or flaw in the study that is accidentally introduced. It is also known as a confounding variable. - Random Assignment: The process of assigning participants to either the control or experimental group at random. This increases the chance of equal representation among groups (e.g., spreading left-handed people across both groups) and allows the researcher to conclude Cause/Effect.
Other Study Types
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION: Observing people in their natural settings. - Advantage: High real-world validity. - Disadvantage: Cannot determine cause and effect.
CASE STUDY: Detailed study of usually ONE person. - Advantage: Allows for the collection of a vast amount of information. - Disadvantage: Cannot determine cause and effect.
META-ANALYSIS: A method that combines multiple existing studies to increase the total sample size and examine overall effect sizes.
Statistics
Descriptive Statistics: Statistics used to show the shape and characteristics of the data.
Measures of Central Tendency: - Mean: The mathematical average. It is best used in a normal distribution. - Median: The middle number in a data set. It is best used in a skewed distribution. - Mode: The number that occurs most often. - Bimodal: A distribution that has two modes, which usually indicates a split between good and bad scores.
Skews: Created by outliers in the data. - Negative skew: The mean is pulled to the left (negative side) and the mode is typically to the right. - Positive skew: The mean is pulled to the right.
Measures of Variation: - Range: The distance between the smallest and the biggest number. - Standard Deviation: The average amount that scores are spread out from the mean. A bigger number indicates more spread in the data.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: Statistics used to establish significance and meaningfulness. - STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Indicates the results are not due to chance; rather, the experimental manipulation caused the difference in means. - p-value: A result is statistically significant if p < .05. A smaller $p$-value is better. - EFFECT SIZE: Indicates the data has practical significance. A bigger effect size is better.
Ethical Guidelines
IRB (Institutional Review Board) approval is required for research involving people.
Confidentiality: Participant names must be kept secret.
Informed Consent: Participants must agree to be part of the study.
Informed Assent: Minors must agree to the study, AND their parents must also agree.
Debriefing: Participants must be told the true purpose of the study after it is completed, especially if deception was used.
Deception: Must be warranted and justified by the study's potential value.
No Harm: Participants must not suffer mental or physical harm.
Additional Research Vocabulary
Surveys: Usually converted into correlations. They are subject to self-report bias.
Self-Report Bias: Errors occurring in survey data due to: - Social desirability: People lying to make themselves look good. - Wording effects: How a question is framed can impact the answers.
Random Sample (Selection): A method for choosing participants for a study where everyone in the population has a chance to take part. This increases the generalizability of the findings.
Representative Sample: A sample that mimics the general population in terms of demographics like ethnicity, gender, and age.
Convenience Sample: Choosing participants based on availability. This is less representative and has less generalizability.
Sampling bias: Corruption of a sample that isn't representative, often due to convenience sampling.
Cultural norms: Behaviors specific to a group that can influence research results.
Experimenter Bias / Participant Bias: When the expectations of the experimenter or the participant influence the study's outcome.
Cognitive Bias: Biases in thinking or judgment, including: - Confirmation bias: Seeking info that supports preexisting beliefs. - Hindsight bias: The "I knew it all along" phenomenon. - Overconfidence: Overestimating one's knowledge or abilities. - Hawthorne effect: People changing their behavior simply because they are being watched.
Quality Control: Research requires peer review and adequate sample sizes.
IMPORTANT DISTINCTION: Do NOT mix up Random Sample and Random Assignment. Sample = Generalize. Assignment = Cause/Effect.
Biological Basis Pillar: Heredity vs. Environment
Evolutionary psychologists: Study how natural selection influences behavior.
Heredity (Nature): How genes influence behavior.
Environment (Nurture): How outside situations (e.g., school) influence behavior.
NATURE VS. NURTURE: The answer is almost always BOTH.
Twin and Adoption Studies: - Genetics: An identical twin has a higher percentage chance of developing a disease if the other twin has it. - Environment: Identical twins raised in different environments show marked differences.
The Nervous System (NS)
CENTRAL NS: Consists of the Brain and the spinal cord.
PERIPHERAL NS: The rest of the nervous system which relays information to the Central NS. - Somatic NS: Governs voluntary movement; contains sensory and motor neurons. - Autonomic NS: Governs involuntary organs (heart, lungs, etc.). It contains two sub-branches: - Sympathetic NS: Responsible for "fight or flight." It generally activates systems, with the exception of digestion, which it inhibits. - Parasympathetic NS: Responsible for "rest and digest." It generally inhibits systems, with the exception of digestion, which it activates.
The Neuron and Neural Firing
NEURON: The basic cell of the Nervous System. - Dendrites: Receive incoming neurotransmitters (NTs). - Axon: The structure down which the Action Potential (AP) travels. - Myelin Sheath: A fatty tissue that speeds up the AP down the axon and protects the axon. - Synapse: The microscopic gap between neurons.
Types of Neurons: - SENSORY neurons: Receive sensory signals from the environment and send signals to the brain. - MOTOR neurons: Send signals from the brain to the body to initiate movement. - Interneurons: Cells in the spinal cord and brain responsible for the reflex arc.
Reflex arc: A process where important stimuli skip the brain and route through the spinal cord for immediate reactions (e.g., pulling a hand away from a hot flame).
GLIA: Support cells that provide nutrients and clean up around neurons.
Neural Firing (Action Potential): Ions move across the membrane, sending an electrical charge down the axon. - Resting potential: The neuron maintains a charge when inactive. - Depolarization: The charge of the neuron briefly switches from negative to positive, triggering the AP. - Threshold of depolarization: Stimulus strength must reach this specific point to initiate the AP. - All-or-nothing principle: The stimulus must trigger the AP past its threshold; however, passing the threshold does not increase the intensity or speed of the response (analogous to flushing a toilet). - Refractory period: The neuron must rest and reset before it can send another AP (analogous to a toilet tank refilling).
Neurotransmitters (NTs)
Definition: Chemicals released into the synaptic gap and received by neurons. Classified as excitatory (increasing APs) or inhibitory (decreasing APs).
GABA: Major inhibitory NT.
Glutamate: Major excitatory NT (Mnemonic: "Glutes excite you!").
Dopamine: Associated with short-term reward and fine movement. Located in the hypothalamus; associated with addiction.
Serotonin: Associated with long-term moods, emotion, and sleep. Primarily in the amygdala; too little is associated with depression.
Acetylcholine (ACh): Associated with memory and movement. Found in the hippocampus; its destruction is associated with Alzheimer’s.
Norepinephrine: Active in the sympathetic NS. Too little is associated with depression.
Endorphins: Neurotransmitters that decrease pain.
Substance P: Involved in pain regulation. Abnormalities can increase pain and inflammation.
Hormones and Drugs
Hormones: Chemical messengers not in the nervous system. - Oxytocin: Involved in love, bonding, childbirth, and lactation. - Adrenaline: Involved in fight/flight. - Leptin: Signals the body to stop eating (makes you full). - Ghrelin: Signals the body to start eating (Mnemonic: turns you into a "gremlin" when hungry). - Melatonin: Involved in sleep regulation.
Drug interactions: - Agonist: A drug that mimics a neurotransmitter. - Antagonist: A drug that blocks a neurotransmitter. - Reuptake: The process where unused NTs are absorbed back into the sending neuron. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) block this process to treat depression.
PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS: - Depressants: Decrease NS activity (e.g., alcohol). - Stimulants: Increase NS activity (e.g., caffeine and cocaine). - Hallucinogens: Cause hallucinations and altered perceptions (e.g., Marijuana). - Opioids: Endorphin agonists used to relieve pain (e.g., heroin). - Tolerance: The requirement of more of a drug to achieve the same effect. - Addiction: A state where a drug must be consumed to avoid withdrawal symptoms. - Withdrawal: Symptoms associated with the sudden stoppage of drug use.
Anatomy of the Brain
Cerebellum: Involved in movement, balance, coordination, and procedural memory (Mnemonic: walking a tightrope while balancing a bell).
Brainstem / Medulla: Controls vital organs (heart rate, blood pressure, breathing).
Reticular Activating System: Controls alertness, arousal, sleep, and eye movement.
Cerebral Cortex: The outer portion of the brain responsible for higher-order thought processes. It encompasses the limbic system, lobes, and corpus callosum.
Limbic System: - Amygdala: Processes emotions and fear. - Hippocampus: Processes episodic and semantic memory (Mnemonic: if you saw a hippo on campus, you’d remember it). - Hypothalamus: The reward/pleasure center; governs eating behaviors and serves as the link to the endocrine system and homeostasis. - Thalamus: The relay center for all senses except for smell. - Pituitary gland: Communicates with the endocrine system and hypothalamus to release hormones.
Lobes of the Brain: - Occipital Lobe: Responsible for vision. - Frontal Lobe: Responsible for decision making, planning, judgment, movement, personality, language, and executive function. - Prefrontal cortex: Located at the front of the frontal lobe; manages executive function. - Motor Cortex: Located at the back of the frontal lobe; contains a map of motor receptors and controls skeletal movement. - Parietal Lobe: Responsible for sensations and touch; controls association areas. - Somatosensory Cortex: Located in the parietal lobe; contains a map of touch receptors. - Temporal Lobe: Responsible for hearing, face recognition, and language.
Association areas: Areas that receive input from multiple lobes to integrate information.
Language Areas (Left hemisphere only; damage results in aphasia): - Broca’s Area: Controls the production of speech (Mnemonic: "Broca - Broken speech"). - Wernicke’s Area: Controls the comprehension of speech (Mnemonic: "Wernicke's What?").
Corpus Callosum: A bundle of nerves connecting the two hemispheres. It is sometimes severed to treat severe seizures, resulting in "split-brain patients." - Split-brain experiments: An image shown to the right eye is processed in the left hemisphere, allowing the patient to say what they saw. An image shown to the left eye is processed in the right hemisphere, preventing the patient from speaking the name of the object.
BRAIN PLASTICITY: The brain's ability to change through damage and experience.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: A system that sends hormones throughout the body. The Pituitary Gland (controlled by the hypothalamus) is the master gland, releasing growth hormones.
Brain Research and Disorders
EEG: Shows broad electrical output and brain activity but is not specific.
fMRI: Shows brain activity in specific regions by measuring oxygen levels.
Lesion: The purposeful or accidental destruction of brain tissue.
Diseases and Disorders: - Multiple sclerosis: Destruction of the myelin sheath, disrupting APs and causing impaired mobility, paralysis, and pain. - Myasthenia gravis: Acetylcholine is blocked, disrupting APs and causing poor motor control and paralysis. - Blindsight: Caused by lesions to the primary visual cortex; people can "see" (e.g., catch a ball) despite being consciously blind. This is evidence for association areas. - Prosopagnosia: Face blindness; caused by damage to the occipital and/or temporal lobe. - Broca’s aphasia: Damage resulting in stuttered speech. - Wernicke’s aphasia: Damage resulting in jumbled or nonsensical speech. - Phantom limb pain: Pain from an amputated limb caused by brain plasticity. - Epilepsy: Seizures caused by too much or too little Glutamate or GABA. - Alzheimer’s: Memory loss caused by the destruction of acetylcholine neurons in the hippocampus.
Sleep and Consciousness
Consciousness: Awareness of cognitive processes.
Circadian Rhythms: The 24-hour biological clock governing body temperature and sleep. Disruptions like jet lag or shift work cause the clock to get out of sync.
Brain Waves: - Beta Waves: Active when awake (Mnemonic: "You betta be awake for the exam"). - Alpha Waves: High amplitude waves occurring when drowsy.
NREM (Non-REM) Stages: - NREM 1: Light sleep; characterized by hypnagogic sensations (the feeling of falling). - NREM 2: Characterized by bursts of activity called sleep spindles. - NREM 3: Deep sleep featuring Delta waves.
Rapid Eye Movement (REM): Stage for dreaming and cognitive processing. It is "paradoxical" because the brain and heart are active, but the body is paralyzed/relaxed.
Sleep Cycle: The entire cycle takes minutes. REM occurs between each cycle. REM duration increases throughout the night, while deep sleep decreases.
REM Rebound: Lack of REM leads to more intense and longer REM sleep during subsequent rest.
DREAM THEORIES: - Activation Synthesis: A neural theory where the brain produces random bursts of energy, stimulating memories in the limbic system/brainstem. Meaning is developed after the random start. - Consolidation dream theory: The brain combines and processes memories for storage during sleep.
Necessity of Sleep: Consolidation of memories and restoration of the immune system and energy.
Sleep Disorders: - Insomnia: Inability to fall or stay asleep, often due to stress. - Somnambulism: Sleep walking; occurs during stage 3 NREM, NOT during REM. - Narcolepsy: Falling into REM suddenly; treated with stimulants. - Sleep Apnea: Stopping breathing during sleep; often associated with obesity. - REM behavior disorder: Malfunction of the mechanism that paralyzes the body during REM.
Sensation and Transduction
Sensation: Receiving stimulus energy from the environment.
Transduction: Converting stimulus energy into Action Potentials (APs).
Perception: The brain's interpretation of sensory information.
Absolute Threshold: Detection of a signal of the time.
Just Noticeable Difference (JND): The ability to tell the difference between a stronger and weaker stimulus, or between two similar things.
WEBER’S LAW: The principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum proportion for a difference to be detected. The stronger the original stimulus, the more change is needed to notice a difference.
Synesthesia: A condition where senses blend, such as seeing sounds.
Sensory Adaptation: Diminished sensitivity resulting from constant stimulation (e.g., nose blindness). Sensory receptors respond less as they "get tired."
The Visual System
Lens: Focuses light onto the retina.
Retina: Inner surface of the eye containing photoreceptors.
Fovea: The area of best vision containing only cones.
Rods: Responsible for black and white vision and dark adaptation. There are significantly more rods than cones, and they are located along the sides of the retina.
Cones: Responsible for color and bright light vision. They are sensitive to red, green, and blue and are located in the fovea.
Ganglion cells: Their axons create the optic nerve. Opponent process theory occurs here.
Blind spot: The point where the optic nerve leaves the eye, containing no photoreceptors.
Visual System Vocabulary: - Accommodation: The process of the lens changing curvature to focus images on the retina. - Nearsightedness: Better vision for near objects. - Farsightedness: Better vision for far objects.
THEORIES OF COLOR VISION: - Trichromatic Theory: Three types of cones for color detection: - Blue: Short waves. - Green: Medium waves. - Red: Long waves. - Opponent Process Theory: Complementary colors are processed in ganglion cells, explaining afterimages. The pairs are Red/Green, Blue/Yellow, and Black/White.
Color deficiency: Damage to or missing cones or ganglion cells. Red/green is the most common deficiency. - Dichromatism: Missing one type of cone. - Monochromatism: Possessing only rods.
The Auditory System
Properties of Sound: - Wavelength: Distance between peaks determining pitch. - Long waves = low pitch. - Narrow/Short waves = high pitch. - Amplitude: Height of the wave determining loudness. - Short waves = soft volume. - Tall waves = loud volume.
THEORIES OF HEARING (Occurring in the cochlea): - Place theory: The location where hair cells bend determines the sound (explains high pitches). - Frequency theory: The rate at which action potentials are sent determines the sound (explains low pitches). - Volley theory: Groups of neurons fire APs out of sync to process frequencies.
Other Auditory Terms: - Sound localization: The brain uses the difference in time it takes for waves to reach each ear to locate sound. - Conduction deafness: Damage to the bones of the ear or the eardrum. - Sensorineural deafness: Damage to the cochlea, hair cells, or auditory nerve, usually due to age or loud noise.
Other Senses
Vestibular: The sense of balance, governed by semicircular canals in the inner ear.
Kinesthetic: The sense of body position and movement without needing to look at the limbs up.
Pain (Gate-control theory): Suggests we have a "gate" (both mental and physical) that controls the amount of pain experienced.
Temperature: The sensation of "hot" is the simultaneous activation of warm and cold receptors.
Taste (Gustation): There are 6 taste receptors: bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory), and oleogustus (fatty/oily). Processed by the tongue, mouth, and brain. - Receptor density determines if a person is a super taster, medium taster, or nontaster. - Sensory Interaction: Smell is necessary for strong taste perception.
Smell (Olfaction): The only sense that does NOT route through the thalamus. Pheromones are chemical signals used within a species for attraction.
Perception and Cognition Pillar
Top-Down Processing: Moving from the whole idea or prior expectations to smaller parts (e.g., seeing faces in a painting).
Bottom-Up Processing: Moving from smaller parts or sensory info to the whole idea (e.g., seeing a dog in a series of dots).
Schemas: Preexisting mental concepts of how things should look or function.
Perceptual Set: The tendency to see something as part of a group, which speeds up signal processing.
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY: The belief that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. - Gestalt Principles: - Figure/ground: Organizing info into objects (figures) that stand apart from their surroundings (background). - Closure: Mentally filling in gaps in a visual image. - Proximity: Grouping things together that appear near each other. - Similarity: Grouping things together based on their appearance.
Constancies: The ability to recognize that objects do not physically change despite differences in sensory input (size, shape, brightness).
Apparent Movement: Distorting reality so objects appear to move when they are stationary (e.g., flip books, blinking lights).
Selection Attention: Focusing on one stimulus while blocking out others, which can result in: - Inattentional Blindness: Failure to notice an added stimulus due to focus on another task (e.g., the gorilla video). - Change Blindness: Failure to notice a change in a scene (e.g., a curtain changing color). - Cocktail party effect: Noticing your own name spoken across a room even when not previously paying attention.
BINOCULAR DEPTH CUES (Using both eyes): - Retinal Disparity: Small differences in images cast on each retina help the brain determine depth. - Convergence: The strain in eye muscles as eyes look inward for near objects.
MONOCULAR DEPTH CUES (Developing 3D images from 2D input): - Interposition: Overlapping images appear closer. - Relative Size: When two objects are similar in size, the smaller one is perceived as further away. - Linear Perspective: Parallel lines appear to converge with distance. - Relative Clarity: Hazy objects appear further away. - Texture Gradient: Coarser, more detailed objects appear closer.
Thinking and Problem Solving
Concepts: Mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics.
Prototypes: Ideal examples used to compare all instances of a concept.
Algorithms: Step-by-step strategies that guarantee a solution (e.g., mathematical formulas).
Heuristics: Shortcut strategies. - Representative Heuristic: Making a judgment based on experience or stereotypes (e.g., assuming a quiet person is a librarian). - Availability Heuristic: Making a judgment based on the first thing that comes to mind (e.g., fearing planes due to recent news coverage of a crash).
Metacognition: The process of thinking about or reflecting upon the way one thinks.
Mental Set: Repeatedly using one strategy to solve a problem and failing to "think outside the box."
Functional Fixedness: The inability to see more than the common use for an item.
Sunk Cost Fallacy: Continuing an endeavor simply because of previous investment, even when stopping would be better.
Gambler’s Fallacy: The belief that a random event is "due" to happen because it hasn't happened recently.
Divergent thinking: Creative thinking; the ability to think of many different things at once. Hindered by functional fixedness.
Convergent thinking: Non-creative thinking that seeks one right answer.
Executive Functioning: The processes of generating, organizing, planning, and carrying out goal-directed behaviors.
Memory Encoding
Automatic encoding: Encoding that requires no effort (e.g., what you ate for breakfast).
Effortful encoding: Encoding that requires conscious work (e.g., studying for school).
Levels (Depth) of Processing: The more meaning is emphasized, the better the memory is retained. - Structural encoding: Shallow; focus on physical structure. - Phonemic encoding: Intermediate; focus on word sounds. - Semantic encoding: Deep; focus on the meaning of words.
Elaborative Rehearsal Strategies: - Imagery: Attaching mental images to info. - Dual encoding: Using multiple methods of processing (e.g., photos and words). - Chunking: Breaking info into smaller, manageable units (e.g., phone numbers). - Mnemonics: Memory shortcuts. - Acronyms: Using letters to remember lists (e.g., PEMDAS). - Method of Loci: Using physical locations to remember a list in order.
Retrieval Contexts: - Context dependent memory: Remembering info best in the location where it was learned. - State dependent memory: Remembering info best when in the same physical state as during learning (e.g., study high, test high). - Mood congruent memory: Remembering happy events when happy and sad events when sad.
Forgetting curve: Recall decreases rapidly at first, then plateaus. - Distributed practice (spacing effect): Reviewing info a little bit every night, which resets the forgetting curve. - Massed practice: Cramming info into one session. - Testing effect: The benefit of periodically quizzing oneself over the material.
Memory Storage and Retrieval
Multi-Store Model: - Sensory Memory: Stores all incoming stimuli. Requires attention. - Iconic Memory: Visual memory lasting seconds. - Echoic Memory: Auditory memory lasting seconds. - Short Term Memory (STM): Info lasts seconds. Capacity is items. - Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating info to reset the STM clock. - Long Term Memory (LTM): Lasts a lifetime. - Explicit (Conscious): Episodic (events) and Semantic (facts). - Implicit (Automatic): Classical conditioning, Priming (earlier info influencing later recall), and Procedural (skills/muscle memory).
Working Memory Model: Splits STM into visual-spatial memory and a phonological loop, managed by a "central executive."
Other Memory Types: - Prospective memory: Remembering to perform a future task. - Autobiographical memory: Personal history (combo of episodic/semantic). - Superior autobiographical: A rare condition allowing for extremely detailed personal memory.
Organization: - Hierarchies: Grouping by related clusters. - Semantic networks: Webs of semi-related information. - Tip of the tongue phenomenon: Inability to recall a specific name because the person is stuck elsewhere in the semantic network.
Storage Biology: Acetylcholine neurons in the hippocampus for episodic/semantic; Cerebellum for implicit; Amygdala for emotional; Frontal lobe for encoding/retrieval.
Long-term potentiation: The neural basis of memory; connections strengthen with repeated stimulation.
Retrieval types: Recall (no cues, e.g., essays) vs. Recognition (with cues, e.g., MCQ).
Interference: - Proactive: Issues with NEW info because of old info. - Retroactive: Issues with OLD info because of new info.
Memory Failures: - Encoding failure: Forgetting because info was never paid attention to. - Source Amnesia: Forgetting the origin of information. - Misinformation effect: Distortion of memory by suggestion. - Anterograde amnesia: Inability to form new memories. - Retrograde amnesia: Inability to remember old memories.
Intelligence and Achievement
Theories: - Single form (g factor): General intelligence underlies all mental abilities. Typical for modern IQ tests. - Multiple intelligences: Intelligence consists of various independent types.
First IQ Test: Calculated using Chronological age (actual age) and Mental age (tested age).
Modern IQ standard: Average is , Standard Deviation () is .
Characteristics of Tests: - Standardization: Consistent procedures, environments, and grading (e.g., SAT, AP exams). - Reliability: Consistency over time. - Split-half: Comparing two halves of one test. - Test-retest: Using the same test on two occasions. - Validity: Accuracy. - Construct validity: Measuring the intended trait. - Predictive validity: Ability to predict a future trait.
Types of Tests: Aptitude (predicts ability to learn) and Achievement (tests current knowledge).
Historical/Social Issues: - Eugenics: The study of "improving" the gene pool. - Flynn Effect: Intelligence scores have risen over the last years. - Stereotype Threat: Feeling at risk of conforming to a negative stereotype about one's group, which can negatively impact performance.
Development Pillar
Thematic Issues: Nature/Nurture, Continuous/Discontinuous (gradual vs. stages), Stability/Change.
Research Designs: - CROSS-SECTIONAL: Comparing people of different ages at one time. Fast/cheap but subject to generational gaps. - LONGITUDINAL: Studying the same people over a long period. Specific/detailed but expensive with high dropout rates.
Physical Development: - Teratogens: External agents (drugs, alcohol) causing abnormal prenatal development. - Maturation: The natural, inevitable course of development (e.g., walking). - Motor skills: Gross movement (large muscles) develops before fine movement (small muscles). - Reflexes: Rooting (turning face when cheek is touched), sucking, swallowing, grasping, Moro (startle), stepping, and Babinski (toe spreading). - Vision: Least developed sense at birth; takes year to fully develop. Babies must learn the "visual cliff" (depth perception). - Critical period: A limited time where a developmental milestone (like language) MUST happen. - Imprinting: Birds following the first thing they see as a mother figure.
Puberty: Sexual maturation. - Primary sex characteristics: Structures needed for reproduction (ovaries, testicles, etc.). - Menarche: First period. - Spermarche: First sperm release. - Secondary sex characteristics: Non-reproductive traits (breasts, voice changes, body hair).
Adulthood: Ability levels off and then declines in mobility, reaction time, and acuity.
Cognitive and Socioemotional Development
JEAN PIAGET’S STAGES: - Sensorimotor ( years): Exploring the world. Lack object permanence initially. - Pre-operational ( years): Pretend play and symbols. Lack conservation (substance size stays same despite shape) and reversibility. Characterized by egocentrism (everyone sees what I see) and animism (objects have feelings). - Concrete Operational ( years): Logical thinking in concrete contexts. - Formal Operational ( years): Abstract and hypothetical reasoning.
VYGOTSKY’S THEORY: Development is social. - Zone of Proximal Development: The gap between what a child can do alone vs. with support (scaffolding).
Intelligence Types: - Crystallized: Prior learning and facts; increases with age. - Fluid: New learning and abstract problem solving; decreases with age.
Language Milestones: Phonemes (sounds), Morphemes (meaning units), Cooing, Babbling, One-word, Telegraphic speech (two words). Overregularization is a grammatical error (e.g., "I goed").
Socioemotional Development: - Temperament: Baby's emotional reaction patterns (Easy, Difficult, Slow to warm up). - Harlow's "Monkey Experiments": Proved contact comfort is more important than feeding. - Attachment Styles (Strange Situation): - Secure (): Upset when mom leaves, calmed upon return. - Avoidant Insecure (): Avoids mom; doesn't care if she leaves. - Anxious Insecure (): Freaks out when mom leaves; clingy/jealous. - Disorganized Insecure (): Dazed, fearful, usually a result of abuse. - Parenting Styles: Authoritarian (strict rules), Permissive (no rules), and Authoritative (give and take; best for self-esteem).
Erikson’s 8 Stages: Each stage is a crisis (e.g., Trust vs. Mistrust, Identity vs. Role Confusion, Integrity vs. Despair).
Ecological Systems Theory: Microsystem (immediate), Mesosystem (relationships), Exosystem (indirect), Macrosystem (culture), and Chronosystem (historical time).
Learning Pillar
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (Involuntary behaviors): - Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Causes response naturally (e.g., food). - Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural response (e.g., salivation). - Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The learned trigger (e.g., bell). - Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS. - Contiguity: Timing; the CS must be presented second BEFORE the UCS. - Spontaneous Recovery: The return of an extinguished CR after a rest period. - Conditioned Taste Aversion: One-trial learning due to biological preparedness.
OPERANT CONDITIONING (Voluntary behaviors): - Law of Effect: Behaviors with positive outcomes are strengthened; negative ones are weakened. - Reinforcement: Increases behavior. Positive adds something good; Negative removes something bad/annoying. - Punishment: Decreases behavior. Positive adds something bad; Negative removes something good. - Reinforcement Schedules: - Fixed Ratio: Reward every $X$ number of responses (highest response rates). - Fixed Interval: Reward every $X$ amount of time. - Variable Ratio: Random number of responses (most resistant to extinction; e.g., slot machines). - Variable Interval: Random amount of time.
Misc Learning: - Social Learning: Through observation and modeling (Bandura's Bobo doll). - Latent Learning: Learning that is hidden until useful (creates cognitive maps). - Insight Learning: Sudden "aha!" moment.
Social and Personality Pillar
Attributions: Explaining behavior either by internal disposition or external situations. - Fundamental Attribution Error: Blaming others' behavior on their personality while ignoring the situation. - Self-serving bias: Crediting our successes to ourselves and our failures to others.
Attitude and Persuasion: - Central route: Logical arguments; long-term change. - Peripheral route: Emotional appeals or incidental cues like attractiveness. - Cognitive Dissonance: Discomfort when two thoughts conflict, leading us to justify situations.
Social Influence: - Conformity (Asch's lines): Influenced by group size and unanimity. - Obedience (Milgram's shocks): Influenced by prestige and proximity of the authority figure.
Group Dynamics: - Bystander Effect: Diffusion of responsibility in large crowds (Kitty Genovese case). - Deindividuation: Mob mentality in anonymous situations. - Social Loafing: Less effort in a group tug-of-war. - Groupthink: Prioritizing harmony over good ideas.
Personality Theories: - Psychodynamic: Unconscious Id (wants), Superego (morals), and Ego (mediator). Employs defense mechanisms like repression, projection, and sublimation. - Traits (The Big Five / OCEAN): Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism. - Humanistic: Emphasis on self-actualization and unconditional positive regard. - Social-Cognitive: Reciprocal Determinism (interplay of behavior, cognition, and environment) and Self-efficacy.
Motivation and Emotion
Theories of Motivation: - Drive Reduction: Driven by homeostasis (e.g., hungry -> eat to stop hunger). - Arousal Theory (Yerkes-Dodson Law): Seeking optimum levels of arousal—moderate is best. - Lewin's Conflict: Approach-Approach (win-win), Approach-Avoidance (win-lose outcome), Avoidance-Avoidance (lose-lose).
Emotion Theories: Focus on physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal/labels. - Biological routes: Fast route (direct to amygdala) vs. Long route (through frontal lobe for thinking). - Facial feedback hypothesis: Forcing a smile makes one feel happier. - Universal Emotions: Happiness, anger, sadness, surprise, disgust, and fear.
Mental and Physical Health Pillar
Stress Response (General Adaptation Syndrome): - Phase 1: Alarm (shock/fight-or-flight). - Phase 2: Resistance (immune system coping). - Phase 3: Exhaustion (body gives up, sickness occurs).
Coping: Problem-focused (solving the stressor) or Emotion-focused (managing the feelings).
Clinical Diagnosis: Uses the DSM (published by the APA) or the ICD (published by WHO).
Selected Disorders: - ADHD: Inattention and/or hyperactivity. - ASD: Social and communication impairments. - Schizophrenia: Positive symptoms (hallucinations, delusions) and Negative symptoms (flat affect, catatonia). Associated with the dopamine hypothesis (too much dopamine). - Anxiety Disorders: Phobias, Panic disorder, GAD. Often involve a lack of GABA. - Personality Disorders: Cluster A (Odd), Cluster B (Dramatic/Erratic, e.g., Antisocial, Narcissistic), Cluster C (Anxious, e.g., Obsessive-compulsive personality).
Treatments: - Biopsychosocial: Meds paired with therapy. - Psychodynamic: Free association and dream interpretation. - Biological Meds: Anti-psychotics (side effect: Tardive Dyskinesia), Anti-depressants (reuptake inhibition), Lithium (mood stabilizer for Bipolar). - Cognitive: Fixing the cognitive triad (negative views of self, world, and future) through restructuring. - Behavioral: Systematic desensitization (anxiety hierarchy) and Aversive conditioning (associating bad behavior with nausea). - ECT: Electrical induction of seizures for severe depression.