Understanding Youth Crime – Theoretical Perspectives

LECTURE 5: UNDERSTANDING YOUTH CRIME – THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

A. Theories of Youth Crime: Three General Categories

  1. Positivist Theory: This approach assumes that people are generally law-abiding and that deficiencies in social structure or personal circumstances compel 'good people' to commit 'bad acts'.
  2. Classical and Social/Self-Control Theories: This framework operates under the assumption that some individuals are naturally 'bad'; therefore, only the presence of strong controls can compel these individuals to act within society's norms.
  3. Humanist/Conflict/Critical Theories: This perspective shifts focus from individual blame to the questioning of social structures and institutions, looking at how these forces shape individual behavior.

B. Sociological Positivist Theories

Social Disorganization Theory (SDT)
  • Developed by Shaw & McKay in 1942, this theory emphasizes the impact of urban industrial expansion on crime rates, arguing that such growth undermines traditional social controls from family, church, and community.
  • Transitional Zone: Areas particularly susceptible to crime and delinquency due to social disorganization, characterized by low socio-economic status (SES) and inadequate services. The further one moves away from this zone, the less crime is typically observed.
  • Key Causes of Crime in Transitional Zones:
    1. Absence of controls that would prevent delinquency.
    2. Community approval of delinquent behavior by parents or neighbors.
    3. Numerous opportunities for crime.
    4. Lack of employment opportunities.
  • Policy Implications of SDT:
    • Strengthening familial ties and community services.
    • Enhancing employment opportunities.
    • Increased policing presence (Broken Windows Policing).
Strain Theories (Anomie)
  • Proposed by Merton in 1938, this theory suggests that cultural values in the U.S. create strain by emphasizing goals over means, resulting in anomie (normative ambiguity).
  • Five Adaptations to Social Strain (with policy implications):
    1. Conformity: Acceptance of both means and goals. Policy: Focus on educational alignment and maintaining youth in school.
    2. Innovation: Rejection of means but acceptance of goals, explaining youth crime. Policy: Provide legitimate means for acquiring goods.
    3. Ritualism: Acceptance of means without valuing goals; no particular policies apply.
    4. Retreatism: Rejection of both means and goals (e.g., excessive video gaming). Policy: Engaging dropouts through pro-social activities.
    5. Rebellion: Rejecting established means/ends and replacing them with new ones (e.g., alternative lifestyles). Policy: Promote national unity that supports traditional goals.
  • Critiques: Does not adequately address gender, race, intersectionality, or the rational-choice perspective.
Subcultural Theories
Status Frustration
  • Developed by Albert Cohen in 1955, this theory posits that lower-class delinquency is a reaction to the failure to achieve middle-class standards, leading to "status frustration".
  • Policy Implications: Make gang membership less appealing.
Differential Opportunity
  • Cloward and Ohlin articulate that both legitimate and illegitimate opportunities influence delinquency, where access to criminal role models fosters criminal behavior.
  • Policy Implications: Separate hardened criminals from youth to minimize negative influences.
Differential Association Theory
  • Proposed by Edwin Sutherland, this theory focuses on how delinquency can vary based on the intimacy and frequency of contact with deviant peers.
  • Crime is learned through cultural transmission and communication.
  • Policy Implications: Encourage prosocial role modeling when familial influences are criminal.

C. Classical / Positivist Perspectives

Social / Self-Control Theory
  • Introduced by Travis Hirschi in 1969 and further developed with Gottfredson in 1997, this theory hinges on the idea that without "social controls", primal impulses may lead individuals to crime.
  • Inner and outer controls serve as deterrents:
    1. Inner Controls: Established by age 6-7 or not at all, dictating behavior.
    2. Outer Controls:
      a. Informal: Threat of loss of social rewards.
      b. Formal: Risk of official punishment.
  • Policy Implications: Emphasize early intervention for fostering inner controls, ensuring parental supervision, and employing formal judicial processes for deterrence.

D. Social Reaction / Conflict Perspectives

Labelling Theory
  • Articulated by Edwin Lemert in 1967, this theory differentiates between primary deviance (occasional acts) and secondary deviance (when individuals are labeled as deviant).
  • Policy Implications: Implement extrajudicial measures and restorative justice practices to mitigate the effects of labeling.
Radical Conflict Theory
  • Highlighted in "The Crisis of Abandoned Youth" by Greenberg, it suggests a large segment of youth excluded from the labor market leads to higher youth crime rates, particularly property crime.
  • Policy Implications: Create well-paying job opportunities for youth.

E. Opportunity Theory

Routine Activities Theory
  • Shifts focus from identifying criminals to analyzing who is more likely to be victimized, recognizing that risk placements contribute to these victimizations.
  • Introduces the concept of the Block Parent Program to enhance guardianship for children at risk of victimization.
  • Policy Implications: Promote situational crime prevention through increased visibility and security in public spaces.

F. Case Study: R v. M.A.-O (2019)

  • The writer of the PSR, Amanda Nichol, emphasizes the necessity of ongoing support for M.A.-O. to address his underlying issues. Recommendations include:
    • Continuing programming and counseling through the Youth Justice Outreach Program, focusing on harm reduction and individual goals.
    • Connecting M.A.-O. with the Canadian Training Institute to help regulate emotions and develop a positive peer group.
    • Linking M.A.-O. to the Toronto Youth Partnerships and Employment program to promote skill development and job opportunities.

LECTURE 6: RISKS AND NEEDS, FAMILIES, SCHOOLS, AND PEERS

A. Schools and Youth Crime

  • Schools serve as significant institutions for youth, alongside families and peers, which are major predictors of youth delinquency.
  • School Shootings: Reference high-profile cases in the USA (e.g., Uvalde, Sandy Hook, Columbine) and Canada (e.g., La Loche, Ecole Polytechnique) that perpetuate moral panics about school safety.
  • School Resource Officers (SROs): Police stationed within schools to enhance security and provide mentorship to students.
  • Concerns regarding parental supervision and the influence of gaming and AI on youth behavior further highlight issues surrounding school shootings.
Parental Responsibility
  • Legal Cases: In cases like Ethan Crumbley (2021), parents faced charges for failures in gun storage and inadequate supervision of their son, who was involved in a school shooting.
  • Issues arise surrounding how to establish parental responsibility for a child’s actions, considering the complexities of intent and culpability.
Risk, Media, and Moral Panic
  • Risks in daily life—such as crossing streets, financial management, and traveling—are managed through various educational and institutional approaches.
  • Schools implement measures including fire and lockdown drills, alongside different policies emphasizing dress codes and behavioral conduct.
Media Narratives & Responses
  • Specific instances such as the "Chicken Finger Gun" disciplinary case demonstrate how a media-fueled moral panic can manifest in school disciplinary processes, including the introduction of zero-tolerance policies.

B. School Suspensions and Expulsions / Ontario Human Rights Commission (OHRC)

  • Amendments (February 1, 2008): Identified the disproportionate effects of zero-tolerance policies on marginalized youth, necessitating alternative educational programming for suspended students.
  • Expulsion Criteria: Outlined in the Education Act includes severe actions (e.g., weapon possession, assault) as justifications for expulsion, with considerations for contextual factors during the decision-making process.
  • Suspensions: Procedures for suspensions must reflect contextual assessments, focusing on behaviors necessitating suspension (>20 days) and offering educational support during suspension periods.
The School-Prison Pipeline
  • This phenomenon describes how punitive disciplinary practices lead to disengagement from education, particularly affecting racialized youth negatively and propelling them into the justice system.
Critical Race Theories
  • Understand the implications of colonial and socio-political contexts on crime, especially in educational settings, to construct social controls that are equitable and just.

C. School Health – Addressing the Root Problems

  • Recommendations from the Falconer Report (2008) suggest investing in health-focused, rather than punitive, resolutions in schools and identify the systemic prevalence of issues necessitating intervention.
  • Statistical Insights: Reports note significant numbers of students aware of weapon presence in schools and the increasing rates of sexual assault, highlighting the need for immediate action and preventive measures.
  • Evidence indicates that punitive measures, such as suspensions, exacerbate feelings of rejection among vulnerable youth, triggering a cycle of violence and victimization.
Female Youth Crime and Feminist Theories

  • Reitsma-Street’s Analysis: Delinquent girls often confront socio-cultural pressures to conform to norms of care and appearance, impacting their behavior and societal perceptions.

  • Ashley Smith Case: A case study exemplifying the failures of both the educational and youth justice systems in addressing the multifaceted issues surrounding mental health and behavioral challenges. Smith's experiences underscore systemic shortcomings and the implications of punitive responses to acts of resistance.

  • Reflective Questions: Students and practitioners are encouraged to analyze how punitive practices reflect broader systemic inequalities and contemplate alternative, more supportive measures for addressing youth behaviors instead of criminalizing those who exhibit distress or rebellion.