Unit 4: Political Organization of Space - Exhaustive Study Guide

Defining Political Geography and the Political Organization of Space

Political Geography: The study of the political organization of the world. The world is currently organized by states and supranational organizations (EU, UN, NATO). Identifying national groups is considered a European "invention" emerging in the $17\text{th}$ , $18\text{th}$ , and $19\text{th}$ centuries.
Nationalism (Leon Baradat): A political scientist who defined nationalism as something that "calls on people to identify with the interests of their national group and to support the creation of a state - a nation-state - to support those interests."
Diffusion of the Nation-State Model: This idea diffused globally through imperialism and colonization. Post-war decolonization after WW2 set the stage for nationalism to sweep the world. The world economy functions via transactions between these states.
Evolution of Space Organization: Space has transitioned through several stages: Nomadism $\rightarrow$ Small villages $\rightarrow$ Sedentary Civilizations $\rightarrow$ Empires $\rightarrow$ Kingdoms/Feudalism (centralized by the Catholic Church) $\rightarrow$ Nation-states $\rightarrow$ Colonies controlled by nation-states $\rightarrow$ Decolonization.
Key Examination Points: Political geography examines boundaries, divisions, and possessions of countries/states (territories/colonies). It considers pressures such as centralization vs. regionalism/localism and supranationalism vs. nationalism (e.g., EU vs. Brexit, Super League vs. Domestic leagues).

Major Considerations in Political Organization

Settlements and Structure: Political organization involves sedentary settlements with organized structures (governments) and delimited/demarcated space.
Variation Over Time: Methods of organizing space vary across history, shifting between Empires, Caliphates, Feudal Kingdoms, and the modern state system.
Mismatched Boundaries: Political borders rarely align perfectly with cultural boundaries (geo-cultural spaces). European Nationalism attempted this alignment, but it remains imperfect, leading to devolutionary pressure and centrifugal forces. * Implications of Mismatch: Demographics often don't control the border-drawing process, resulting in cultural groups being split or rival groups being encased together, competing for capital and political power. * Nationalism Risks: One group may promote its interests at the expense of others, pursuing homogeneity through displacement or ethnic cleansing. Religion can also be used as a tool to justify actions against other groups.
Scales of Organization: Political organization occurs at Supranational, National, Sub-national, and Local levels. Governments utilize systems like Unitarism or Federalism to manage these scales and maintain the viability of the political unit.
Scales of Political Units: * Intergovernmental/Supranational: Global scale. * State: National scale. * Sub-national: Sub-state level, involving territories, provinces, cantons, or emirates. * Municipal: Local scale, involving counties, cities, and neighborhoods.

The Concepts of Country and State

State vs. Country: A state is a political, administrative entity with legal protection under international law. It derives legitimacy from serving citizens (government, economy, military). The term "country" is problematic because it does not always imply sovereignty (e.g., Basque, Kurdistan, Balochistan, Bashkiria).
Recognition of Sovereignty: There are nearly $200$ independent countries; the UN recognizes $193$ member states.
Theories of Statehood: * Declarative Theory: A state exists if it possesses the four elements of a state; statehood is not determined solely by recognition. However, unrecognized states find it difficult to engage in full treaty powers or diplomacy. * Constitutive Theory: A state is not a state until it is recognized by the international community.
Main Elements of a Country: 1. Territory: Politically organized with defined borders. 2. Population: Citizens and immigrants living within mainland or territorial possessions. 3. Government: Structure (Unitary, Federation, Confederation) and authority (Monarchy, Representative, Dictatorship). 4. Sovereignty: Recognition of statehood by other states; the ability to establish foreign relations.

Territory and Border Development

Components of Territory: Includes land, water, air space, and natural resources (sub-soil) within boundaries.
Human Territoriality: The process by which groups assert control over people in a geographic area by delimiting and asserting control. * Examples: Europeans building nation-states, colonies declaring independence, groups like the Basques seeking autonomy, or the Taliban struggling for territorial expansion.
Determination of Borders: 1. Natural Divisions: Rivers, oceans, mountains, deserts. 2. Wars/Conquests: Shrinking or expanding territories. 3. Negotiations/Treaties: The Treaty of Versailles (broke up Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires) and the Paris Peace Treaty (started post-WW2 decolonization).
Physical Geography and Power: Geography influences a state's power. For example, Britain's access to the sea and its abundance of coal and iron fueled the Industrial Revolution and imperial power.

Sovereignty and the Peace of Westphalia

Self-Rule: Sovereignty involves the ability to establish independent policies and laws, deal equally with other countries (trade/military), and protect citizens.
Territorial Integrity: Established post-WW2 standards defend a state’s right to protect its territory. UN Charter Article $2.4$ ( $1945$ ) states: "All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any State."
Historical Origins: * Protestant Reformation ( $1500\text{s}$ ): A fight against the Holy Roman Empire (HRE) and Catholic Church control. Lutheranism was recognized in $1555$ . * $30$ Years War ( $1618$ - $1648$ ): German states fought for the recognition of Calvinism. Princes wanted the right to choose the religion of their state (territoriality). * Peace of Westphalia ( $1648$ ): The treaty ending the war that allowed German Princes to choose state religion, making territorial states recognized as legitimate. The HRE eventually collapsed in $1806$ after Napoleon's defeat.

Nations, Nation-States, and Nationalism

Nation: A culturally defined group of people who see themselves as one based on shared culture/history and desire political-territorial autonomy. It is distinct from the legal terms "country" or "state."
Native Americans in the US: Landmark cases Cherokee Nation v. Georgia ( $1831$ ) and Worcester v. Georgia ( $1832$ ) established that states cannot enforce laws on Native American lands due to their status as nations.
The Myth of the Homogenous State: Many states are multinational (Belgium with Flemish Flanders and French Wallonia; Canada with Anglo and French Canadians). A "Nation-State" occurs when a nation and state occupy the same space perfectly. Japan and Iceland are the closest modern examples.
True Nationalism: Pursuing a homogenous state for one nation. In diverse countries like the US, "white nationalism" is the pursuit of a state designated for one group at the expense of others, leading to marginalization, eugenic policies, or ethnic cleansing (e.g., Hitler, Franco).
Types of National Groupings: * Multinational States: A state with more than one nation (e.g., Former Yugoslavia: Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Montenegrins, Albanians). * Multi-state Nations: A nation overlapping multiple states (e.g., Germans in Germany, Austria, and Poland; Serbians in Serbia and former Austro-Hungary). * Stateless Nations: National groups without a sovereign state (e.g., Palestinians, Kurds, Rohingya, Basques, Catalonians, Uyghurs, Hmong).

Disputed and Partially Recognized States

Universally Disputed States: Entities that lack universal recognition due to conflict, territorial disputes, or policy differences. Examples include: * Republic of Armenia * North Korea (DPRK) and South Korea (Republic of Korea) * Taiwan (Republic of China) and People's Republic of China (PRC) * Israel * Republic of Kosovo * Republic of Somaliland * Abkhazia
Significance: These disputes show the fragility of the state system, impact foreign policy (alliances/peacekeeping), and affect economics through sanctions and limited trade.

Shapes of States and Viability

Elongated (Attenuated): Long and stretched; difficult to achieve unity (e.g., Norway, Chile).
Compact: Small, rounded, or squared with a central capital; promotes centralization and solidarity.
Fragmented: Composed of disconnected pieces, usually islands. Prone to territorial devolution (e.g., Philippines, Indonesia, Japan, US with Alaska/Hawaii).
Perforated: A country that completely surrounds another (e.g., Italy surrounding San Marino and The Vatican; South Africa surrounding Lesotho).
Prorupted (Protruded): Has long extensions; likely to face territorial devolution (e.g., Thailand, India, Mexico).
Enclaves vs. Exclaves: Specific territorial anomalies requiring governance and diplomacy to maintain viability.
Centripetal vs. Centrifugal Forces: Compact shapes favor centripetal (unifying) forces, while fragmented or elongated shapes favor centrifugal (divisive) forces.

The Diffusion of the Nation-State via Colonialism

Colonial Waves: * $1\text{st}$ Wave ( $16\text{th}$ Century): Exploration led by Spain and Portugal. * $2\text{nd}$ Wave ( $1700\text{s}$ - $1800\text{s}$ ): Led by England, France, Germany, Netherlands, and Belgium.
Motivations: Exploration, spreading Christianity, national pride, and economic domination (mercantilism: extracting resources for domestic production).
Why the Model Stuck: Post-WW2, the world economy required state-to-state interaction for trade. Sovereignty became a prerequisite for entering trade deals and achieving economic player status.

The Role and Structure of Government

State Maintenance Needs: * Order: Making and enforcing laws (Statutory vs. Common law). * Protection: Military and alliances. The US spends over $\$700\text{--}\$900$ billion on defense, while China spends an estimated $\$300$ billion. * Services: Welfare, healthcare, education, stimulus funds (Social Democracies). * Regulation: Governing business practices, worker protections, and market concentration (Mixed vs. Command economies).
Government Structures: * Unitary System: Top-down; central government makes all laws for the state. Sub-national units only have delegated power (e.g., UK, Japan). $166$ of $193$ UN states are unitary. * Federal System: Horizontal; central and smaller units share power via a constitution (e.g., USA, India, Germany, Brazil). About $25$ states are federations. * Confederation: Small units hold most power, with the central government handling only defense and foreign commerce (e.g., EU, Articles of Confederation).
Government Authority Types: * Authoritarian: Leadership holds all power. Includes Dictatorships, Totalitarianism (one-party control, e.g., Nazi Germany, North Korea), and absolute Monarchies. * Representative: Separation of powers (Montesquieu). Includes Democracy (direct rule) and Republics (representatives). Presidential systems have separate executive powers; Parliamentary systems fuse executive and legislative powers. * Oligarchy/Plutocracy: Control by a small group of interest groups, wealthy individuals, or technocrats.

Devolution and Regional Movements

Devolution: The downward/outward movement of power from central to regional governments.
Ethnocultural Devolution: Based on ethnic, linguistic, or religious distinctions. Examples: Basques/Catalonians in Spain, Northern Cyprus, Kosovo in Yugoslavia, Transnistria in Moldova, Tigrayans in Ethiopia, and Sikhs in India.
Economic Devolution: Driven by regional wealth disparities. * Catalonia, Spain: Makes up $8\%$ of territory and $16\%$ of population but produces $35\%$ of exports and $54\%$ of high-tech exports. * Italy: The North is the economic core; the South is the periphery. The "Padania" movement in the $1990\text{s}$ pushed for Northern independence.
Territorial Devolution: Results from distance, remoteness, or physical barriers (islands/mountains) separating regions from the capital (e.g., Hawaii in the US).

Political Ideologies and Polarization

The Political Spectrum: * Left-Wing: Radical change, Communism (class elimination), Socialism (command economy/welfare), Social Democracy (market capitalism with high taxes/services). * Right-Wing: Reactionary, Conservatism (status quo), Fascism (authoritarian ultranationalism, suppression of opposition).
United States Context: Wages have not risen since the $1980\text{s}$ adjusted for inflation. The top $10\%$ of Americans own $70\%$ of the wealth. This disillusionment fuels radicalization.
Causes of Polarization: 1. Economic Failure: Deindustrialization, automation, and outsourcing have harmed the middle class. 2. Social/Scientific Progress: Clashes between traditional religion/values and secular progress. 3. Technology: Social media algorithms create echo chambers and spread conspiracies through confirmation bias. 4. Globalization: Created a global division of labor that disadvantaged the domestic working class.

Boundaries and International Law

Definition: International boundaries are vertical planes through the subsoil and airspace. Disputes often arise over subsoil resources like fossil fuels discovered after borders were drawn.
Airspace: Regulated by the Chicago Convention ( $1944$ ) and ICAO. ADIZ (Air Defense Identification Zones) require non-commercial aircraft to alert authorities.
Maritime Borders (UNCLOS $1982$ ): * Territorial Sea: Sovereignty extends to $12$ nautical miles ( $22.2\,km$ / $13.8\,miles$ ). * EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone): Rights to natural resources (fishing/minerals) but the surface remains international waters.
Boundary Types: * Geometric: Straight lines/arcs (e.g., US/Canada at $49\text{th}$ parallel). * Physical-Political: Natural barriers like mountains or deserts. * Relic: No longer functional but visible on the landscape (e.g., Berlin Wall). * Superimposed: Forced by outside powers (e.g., DMZ at $38\text{th}$ parallel, colonial Africa). * Subsequent: Drawn after settlement to accommodate cultural changes (e.g., Northern Ireland vs. Republic of Ireland). * Consequent (Ethnographic): Intended to separate ethnic/religious groups (e.g., India and Pakistan border created in $1947$ ).

Supranationalism vs. Devolution

Supranational Organizations: Entities of $3$ or more states for mutual benefit. Over $60$ exist today. Examples include the UN, EU, NATO, OPEC, and ASEAN.
The United Nations: * General Assembly: All $193$ nations; deliberative body. * Security Council: $15$ members; $5$ permanent with veto power (US, UK, Russia, China, France). Critics argue this power structure is outdated ( $50$ years old) and hypocritical (Human Rights Council members with poor records).
The European Union (EU): Traced to the Marshall Plan ( $\$12$ billion USD aid). Evolution: ECSC $\rightarrow$ EEC $\rightarrow$ EC $\rightarrow$ EU ( $1992$ ). The Euro was adopted in $2002$ .
Brexit ( $2020$ ): The UK leaving the EU, highlighting the tension between the state's interest and supranationalism.

Electoral Geography and Voting Behavior

The Electoral College: Part of a compromise for the Anti-Federalists. $538$ electors ( $435$ Reps + $100$ Senators + $3$ for D.C.). Requires $270$ to win. It over-represents rural states (e.g., $1$ elector per $148,610$ people in Wyoming vs. $1$ per $539,079$ in California).
Representative Imbalance: By $2040$ , $70\%$ of Americans will live in $15$ states, resulting in $70\%$ of the population being represented by only $30$ senators, while $30\%$ of the population holds $70$ seats.
Redistricting Terms: * Apportionment: Seats allocated by population. * Gerrymandering: Redistricting for political advantage (Elbridge Gerry, $1812$ ). * Splitting: Diluting minority votes into multiple districts. * Majority-Minority Districts: Districts where ethnic minorities constitute the majority.
Voter Suppression Methods: Photo ID requirements, purging voter rolls, disenfranchising those with criminal records, exact match laws, and reducing poll hours.

Urban Geography: History and Hearths

Urban Origins: Surplus food from the $1\text{st}$ Agricultural Revolution ( $10,000$ - $12,000$ years ago) led to social stratification and a leadership class.
Six Urban Hearths: 1. Mesopotamia ( $3500$ BCE): Uruk, Babylon; Jericho is the oldest surviving city. 2. Nile River Valley ( $3200$ BCE). 3. Indus River Valley ( $2200$ BCE). 4. Huang He River Valley ( $1500$ BCE). 5. Mesoamerica ( $1100$ BCE): Aztecs/Mayans. 6. Peru ( $900$ BCE): Incas.
Greek and Roman Cities: * Greece: Secondary hearth; over $500$ cities by $500$ BCE. Features: Acropolis (religion/power) and Agora (public/market space). * Rome: Strategic "site" (physical features) and "situation" (relative location). Features: The Forum (center of public life).
Urban Revolutions: * First Urban Revolution: Independent growth in the six hearths. * Second Urban Revolution: Driven by the Second Agricultural Revolution and the Industrial Revolution ( $18\text{th}$ - $19\text{th}$ century). Created manufacturing centers and rapid immigration.

Urban Models and City Structure

Bid Rent Theory (William Alonso, $1964$ ): Land price decreases as distance from the city center increases due to accessibility and demand.
North American City Models: * Concentric Zone (Burgess, $1924$ ): Based on Chicago; rings centered on the CBD. * Sector Model (Hoyt, $1930\text{s}$ ): Pie-shaped zones along transportation corridors. * Multiple Nuclei Model (Harris/Ullman, $1945$ ): The CBD loses dominance; specialized centers emerge (e.g., hotels near airports). * Galactic (Peripheral) Model: Post-industrial; decentralization with "edge cities" and office parks connected by a beltway.
Global Region Models: * Latin American (Griffin-Ford): CBD with a "spine" leading to a mall, surrounded by a disamenity sector and shantytowns (favelas/barrios). * African (De Blij): Three CBDs (Colonial, Traditional, Market). * SE Asian (McGee): Concentric growth focused on a colonial port zone rather than a CBD.

Urban Planning and Social Engineering

Zoning Laws: Used to manage growth. In the US, single-family zoning ( $70\%\text{--}80\%\,cases$ ) contributes to housing shortages and homelessness.
Historical Segregation: * Redlining: Declining services/loans to "high risk" ethnic neighborhoods (illegal since $1968$ Fair Housing Act). * Blockbusting: Real estate agents inducing "white flight" from cities to suburbs to profit from commissions.
Gentrification: The renovation/revival of deteriorated urban areas by affluent residents. While it restores tax revenue, it displaces low-income renters and small businesses.
New Urbanism: Urban design movement promoting walkable, bikeable, transit-available neighborhoods to rein in urban sprawl (expansion into car-dependent communities).
World Cities: Important nodes in global finance/trade. London and NYC are the only "Alpha ++" cities. Rankings depend on business activity ( $30\%$ ), human capital ( $30\%$ ), information exchange ( $15\%$ ), cultural experience ( $15\%$ ), and political engagement ( $10\%$ ).

Measuring Development

Economic Metrics: * GNP (Gross National Product): Value of goods/services produced by citizens/corps, regardless of location. * GDP (Gross Domestic Product): Value produced inside a country's territory. * GNI (Gross National Income): Worth of domestic production + outside investment income - payments to other countries. Standardized as "Per Capita GNI."
Human Development Index (HDI): Created by the UNDP focused on: 1. Long and healthy life: Measures Life Expectancy. 2. Knowledge: Mean and expected years of schooling. 3. Standard of Living: GNI per Capita.
Gender Inequality Index (GII): Measures reproductive health, empowerment (autonomy), and labor force participation.
The Digital Divide: The gap between those with internet infrastructure and those without, highly correlated with wealth.
Economic Sectors: * Primary: Resource extraction (Agriculture/Mining). * Secondary: Manufacturing. * Tertiary: Services/Retail. * Quaternary: Research/IT. * Quinary: High-level leadership/CEO.

Development Theories and Barriers

Modernization Model (Walt Rostow): Five stages of a ladder: Traditional $\rightarrow$ Preconditions for Take-off $\rightarrow$ Take-off $\rightarrow$ Drive to Maturity $\rightarrow$ High Mass Consumption. Criticized for assuming all countries follow the Western path.
World Systems Theory (Immanuel Wallerstein): Three tiers: 1. Core: High tech, high salaries (Ex: USA, Japan). 2. Semi-periphery: Developing; both exploiter and exploited (Ex: Mexico, India). 3. Periphery: Marginalized; low education and salaries (Ex: Central Africa).
Dependency Theory: Argues that the periphery remains dependent on the core due to structural barriers. Example: CFA Franc used by $14$ African states backed by the French Treasury. Dollarization occurs in Ecuador and El Salvador.
Structural Adjustment (Washington Consensus): IFIs (IMF/World Bank) require debtor nations to privatize, reduce tariffs, and deregulate their economies to get loans. Critics argue this reaffirms core dominance.
Costs of Development: Industrial pollution, soil exhaustion ( $300,000$ miles of desert added to the Sahel), and over-reliance on tourism ( $multinational$ corporations often take the profits, leaving only menial jobs for locals).

Questions & Discussion

FRQ Theme 1: Define Nation, State, and Nation-state. Provide late- $20\text{th}$ -century examples from Europe/Africa/Asia.
FRQ Theme 2: Define Centripetal and Centrifugal forces. Illustrate how these affect the stability of a contemporary state like India or Pakistan.
FRQ Theme 3: Explain how Devolutionary pressures (cultural diversity, economic differences, physical geography) impact states like Spain or Nigeria.
FRQ Theme 4: Compare the advantages of Unitary states (uniformity, speed) vs. Federal states (regional accommodation, shared power).
FRQ Theme 5: Describe the formation of squatter settlements in megacities and the social/economic/environmental consequences thereof.
FRQ Theme 6: Explain why deindustrialization in the core leads to growth in the periphery and the redevelopment of "brownfields" in post-industrial cities.