Unit 7 Notes: States, Principalities, Population Movements, and Interactions in Ethiopia (13th - Mid-16th C.)
The "Solomonic" Dynasty & the Christian Kingdom (13th - 16th Centuries)
Yekuno-Amlak: A local ruler in Amhara who restored the dynasty and claimed descent from Aksumite kings.
"Solomonic" Dynasty: Founded in 1270 by Yekuno Amlak, claiming legitimacy through the legend of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon. The name is in quotation marks due to the legendary nature of the claim, which cannot be historically proven.
Kibre Negest ("Glory of Kings"): A 14th-century text elaborating the claim that the Ethiopian ruling class descended from Menilek I, son of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon.
Territorial Expansion:
Amde-Tsion initiated a wider territorial expansion policy.
Motives: Economic (control of trade routes) and political (territorial seizures).
Control over the Zeila trade route strengthened Yekuno Amlak's economic power, enabling a strong army.
Expansion of trade led to commodity flow to the coast.
Political Instability: After Yikuno-Amlak's reign (ended in 1285), there were constant power struggles.
Amba-Gishen: A 'royal prison' established around 1300 during Widim-Ra'ad's reign to resolve succession issues by imprisoning male members of the royal family. Destroyed in 1540 by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi's force.
Mobile Courts:
Medieval monarchs had no permanent capital, ruling through mobile courts for two centuries (1270-1636, before Gondar).
Initially centered around Lake Haiq, then shifted southward to Menz, Tegulet, Bulga, and eastern Shewa (Yerer and Zequalla).
Necessitated by the need for daily food and firewood supplies for the large court.
Military motives also prompted the shift to mobile settlements.
Adaptations of Mobile Capitals:
Moved to food supply areas.
Impoverished hinterlands.
Political integration depended on the mobile center.
These adaptations contributed to the continuation of capital movement.
Environmental Impact: Deforestation due to firewood needs and pollution led to the abandonment of campsites.
Gult System:
A feudal system of administration to govern the vast territory.
State officials (bale-gult or gult owners) were granted the right to collect tribute from local peasantry.
Peasants were assigned based on the official's rank.
Bale-gult enjoyed political and economic privileges: collecting tributes, using peasant labor, and recruiting a local army.
In return, responsible for maintaining law and order.
Enabled the kingdom to maintain a large army.
Rist Right: A hereditary claim to land ownership, a communal birthright.
Gult Right: Granted to state officials as a medieval substitute for salary, not hereditary, lasted as long as the official was loyal.
Church-State Relationship: Strong during this period, with rulers exercising both political and religious powers.
Foreign Relations: Continued relations with Egypt and the Middle East, extended to Europe, with closer ties to Portugal and Spain.
The Muslim Principalities
Establishment: Muslim sultanates formed along long-distance trade routes after the introduction of Islam.
Zeila Trade Route: The most important gateway of Islam, leading to the formation of states like Ifat, Fatigar, Dawaro, Dara, Bali, Hadya, Arbabini, Sharka, and Adal.
Ifat Sultanate:
Emerged in the mid-13th century south of Shewa, founded by Umar Walasma (Walasma Dynasty).
In 1285 AD, destroyed the Makhzumite dynasty.
Controlled Zeila trade routes, becoming the strongest Muslim Sultanate.
Conflict with Christian Kingdom:
Christian highland state developed an interest in the Zeila trade, leading to conflict.
Ifat was defeated by Amde Seyon's Christian forces in 1332 AD.
Other Sultanates:
Fatagar: South of Bulga around Shenkora.
Dawaro: Between the middle Awash River and upper Wabe-Shebele.
Bali: South of the Wabe-Shebele.
Dara: Existed between Dawaro and Bali.
Arbabini: Between Dawaro and Hadiya.
Hadiya: West of Dawaro and Bali.
Sharaka: In the present territory of Arsi.
Trade: A significant factor in the rise and development of these states; a source of conflict with the Christian Kingdoms.
Adal Sultanate:
Established in 1367 by a branch of the Walasma family moving to the southeastern lowlands around Harar.
Became a center of resistance against the Christian Kingdom.
First center: Dakar, southeast of Harar.
In 1520, the center moved to Harar.
In 1576/7, after the defeat of Imam Ahmed and the Oromo population movement, the capital moved to Awsa.
Relationship between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal (1520s-1559)
Primary Conflict Source: Desire to monopolize long-distance trade and territorial expansion.
Height of War: 1529-1543.
Zeila Trade Route Control: Initially under Muslim states (Ifat), then controlled by Amde Seyon after Ifat's defeat in 1332.
Haqadin II and Sa'adadin: Retreated to the Harar plateau to establish a new Muslim resistance base to regain independence.
Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi:
Emerged as a leader amidst internal strife and anarchy in the Muslim Sultanates.
Mobilized pastoral communities (Afar, Argoba, Somali, Harari) for a common cause.
Battles:
Started military expeditions against Lebne Dengel's Christian forces in 1527.
In March 1529, Imam Ahmed's forces won at the battle of Shimbra Kure.
Imam's army controlled Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya, and Kambata.
Imam Ahmed's Empire: By 1535, stretched from Zeila to Massawa, including the Ethiopian interior.
Administration: Established a civil administration in conquered territories.
Bati Del Wanbara: Imam's wife, daughter of a Muslim military commander, accompanied him throughout expeditions.
International Dimension: Portugal and Ottoman Turkey intervened.
Portuguese sought new trade routes due to Ottoman control of existing routes.
Imam Ahmed received Turkish musketeers in 1540.
Portuguese soldiers arrived in the Christian court in 1541, based on Lebne-Dengel's request in 1535.
Battle of Ofla (1542): Christian army defeated, about two hundred Portuguese and their leader Christopher da Gama were killed.
Battle of Woyna-Dega (1543):
Emperor Gelawdewos led Christian forces to victory.
Imam Ahmed was killed.
Adal forces retreated.
Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid: Led Adal to wage war against the Christian nation for revenge.
1559: Emir Nur's army killed Gelawdewos.
Impact of Wars: Both states weakened, paving the way for the Oromo population movement.
Interactions: Intermarriage, linguistic, and religious interactions increased.
Islam: Gained new converts in Christian heartland.
Trade: Continued to be a major channel of social integration.
Merchants: Moved between highlands and coast.
Foundation for Modern Ethiopia: Economic, social, cultural, and political interdependence laid the foundation.
Political and Socio-Economic Conditions of Southern and Central States in Ethiopia
States with Indigenous Religions: Damot, Kafa, Ennarya, Bizamo, Walaita, Yem, Kambata, Gurage chiefdoms, and Agaw kingdom of Gojjam.
Damot:
Existed as early as the Aksumite period.
Motalami, a Damot ruler, was converted to Christianity by Abune Tekle Haymanot.
Annexed into the Christian state in 1316 by King Amde Seyon.
Bizamo: Had early connections with Damot.
Enareya:
Located north of the Gojeb River.
Influenced by the Christian highland state through Damot.
Became part of the Christian highland Kingdom.
Kafa: Independent kingdom south of Enareya, known since the end of the fourteenth century.
Wolaita: Might have been part of Damot, paid tribute to Christian king Yeshaq (1413-1430).
Gurage Chiefdoms: West of Lake Zeway and the highlands of Dawaro, local chiefs used titles like Azmach, Abegaz, and Nigus.
Agaw Kingdom of Gojjam:
Located south of Lake Tana, controlled the Lake and its islands.
Incorporated into the Christian state in the early fourteenth century by Amde Tseyon (1314-1344).
Abba ZeYohannes's attempt to preach the gospel led to conflict with Zhan Chuhay, the ruler of the Agaw Kingdom.
Zhan Chuhay was killed, and Abba ZeYohannes was freed, marking the incorporation of Gojjam into the Christian Kingdom.
Economy: Based on trade and agriculture, main trade items were enslaved people, civets, ivory, and other natural products.
Demand for Enslaved People: High demand in Arabia, Persia, and India.
Sources of Enslaved People: South and central regions, and the highland Christian territories.
Societies without Highly Organized States: Inhabited frontier areas and the lowland strip along the Ethio-Sudanese border, mainly speakers of the Nilo-Saharan language family.
Population Movements, Expansion, and Integration in Ethiopia
16th Century: Dominated by wars and population movements.
Argoba, Afar, and Somali Movements: Resulted from conflicts between the Christian kingdoms and the Sultanate of Adal.
Oromo Expansion: Largest population movement.
Indigenous Cushitic people of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa.
Original homeland: southeastern part of Ethiopia's highlands.
Political and religious center: Madda Walabu.
Causes of Oromo Movement:
Demographic pressure and need for land.
Conflict between the Christian Kingdoms and Muslim Sultanates.
Oromo Confederacies:
Barentu: Karayu, Marawa, Ittu, Humbana, Akachu, Wollo, and Arsi clans.
Borana: Mecha, Tulama, southern Borana, and Guji clans.
Phases of Movement:
Early 16th century: modest and gradual movement.
Mid-16th century to 1618: large-scale movement.
Butta Wars: From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars.
Melba Gadaa (1522-1530): Occupied Bali defeating Christian regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil.
Mudena Gadaa (1530-8): Reached the edge of Awash River.
Kilole Gadaa (1538-46): Controlled Dawaro after defeating Christian regiment Adal Mabraq
Bifole Gadaa (1546-54): Advanced to Waj and Erer.
Michille Gadaa (1554-62): Scored a victory over Hamalmal's force at Dago, Jan Amora forces, and Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo.
Harmufa Gadaa (1562-70): Fought Minas at Qacina and Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc.
Robale Gadaa (1570-78): Defeated Zara'a Yohannis' force. However, Sartsa Dingil's cavalry led by Azzaj Halibo defeated Robale Gadaa at Woyna Daga in 1574.
Birmaji Gadaa (1578-86): Controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to Wolaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment.
Mul’ata Gadaa (1586-94): Seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray.
Dulo Gadaa (1594-1602):
Melba Gadaa (1603-10): Expanded to the West and Northern parts of the Horn of Africa.
Mudena Gadaa (1610-18): Expanded to the West and Northern parts of the Horn of Africa while others like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and Majertin in Somalia.
Direction of Movement:
Barentu: Northeast.
Borana: Northwest.
Also moved into Kenya and Somalia.
Gadaa Centers:
Oda Nabee of Tulama (East Shewa).
Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi).
Oda Bultum of Itu-Humbenna (Hararge).
Oda Bisil of Mecha (West Shewa).
Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha (Horro-Guduru).
Other Gadaa Centers: Gayo of Sabbo-Gona, Me'e Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda Hulle of Jimma, Oda Garad of Wallo, etc.
Abba Muda: The father of anointment seated at Madda Walabu maintained relations between various Oromo groups and formed alliances. The pan-Oromo assembly was forbidden in 1900.
Reasons for Oromo Success:
Gadaa system provided training and military organization.
All members of society participated in wars.
Large-scale expansion.
Use of the horse.
Institution of Adoption.
Weakened Christian kingdom and Sultanate of Adal.
Impact of Oromo Movement:
Ethnic and cultural intermixing.
Destruction of old states (Damot, Bizamo, Ennarya).
Weakened Christian kingdom, shifted political center to Lake Tana and Gondar.
Reduced the Sultanate of Adal to the walled town of Harar.
Oromo became sedentary agriculturists.
Adoption of Christianity and Islam.
Gadaa System of the Oromo
Based on Age-Grades: An egalitarian system led by an assembly or chaffe of the ruling Gadaa class.
Functions: Regulates political, economic, social, and religious activities; conflict resolution, reparation, protecting women's rights;
Institution: Through which the Oromo organized themselves, administered affairs, defended territories, maintained law, and managed economies.
Democracy Elements: Periodic succession, power-sharing, representation of lineages, clans and confederacies.
Age Grades and Generation Sets: Organize society, delineating responsibilities.
Ten Age Grades and Five Classes: Operated in parallel.
Sons Joined First Grade: Forty years after their fathers.
Initiation: Initiated into the next higher grade every eight years.
Time Periods: Eight years = one Gadaa period, five Gadaa periods (40 years) = one generation, nine generations = one era.
Political Philosophy: Terms of eight years, balanced opposition, power-sharing.
Guiding Criteria: Generation, age, sex, and class.
Revivals: The Borana-Barentu Gadaa was revived in 1450 at Madda Walabu.
Gumi-Gayo: Assembly of representatives, the law-making body.
Chaffe: Legislative body where each class sends a delegation of five people.
Oromo Age Grades and Roles:
Dabale (birth-8 years) and Game (9-16 years): Socialization.
Folle (17-24 years): Military training, agriculture.
Qondala (25-32 years): Military service.
Raba-Dori (33-40 years): Candidates for political power.
Gadaa (41-48 years): Leaders of Gadaa government.
Yuba (49 to 80 years): Senior advisors, educators, and ritual leaders.
Peaceful Transfer of Power: Every eight years.
Abba-Gadaa: Head of government, assisted by elected representatives.
Abba Bokku (father of scepter).
Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly).
Abba-Dula (war leader).
Abba Sera (father of law).
Abba Alanga (judge).
Abba Sa'a (father of treasury).
Assembly (Chaffe): Supreme authority, consisting of all members of the ruling Gadaa class.
Sycamore Tree (Odaa): Symbolizes dialogue and consensus.
Senior Qallu (Abba Muda): Indispensable roles in power transfer.
Women's Rights: Maintained through Sinqe institution.
Women's Roles: Involved in power transfer, conflict resolution, thanksgiving.
Cyclical Power Transfer: From one Gadaa class to the next every eight years.
Gadaa Classes (Generation Sets):
Principles of Check and Balance: Regular succession, division of power, balanced opposition, power-sharing.
The rule of laws that stand above all.
The principle of accountability.
The role of confession and impeachment (buqqisu).
A period of testing.
Moggasa and Guddifacha
Assimilation Mechanisms: Oromo assimilated non-Oromo people.
Guddifacha: Adoption of a child, who enjoyed equal rights.
Moggasa: The practice of incorporating individuals or groups into a clan through an oath of allegiance. The adopted community or individual shares everything equally with the Oromos.
Abba Gadaa: Undertook Moggasa on behalf of the clan.
Contribution: Contributed to social cohesion, national integration, and revival of long-distance trade.
Cultural Exchange: Exchange of socio-cultural values and institutions.
Adoption of Gadaa System: Several people in the neighborhood adopted the Gadaa system and Oromo language.
Oromo Adoption: Adopted cultures and traditions of the people they contacted.
Monarchical Systems: Adoption of monarchical systems and integration into Christian and Muslim states.
Far-Reaching Integrations: Oromo contact with diverse peoples brought integrations across ethnic and religious backgrounds.
Egalitarian System of Governance
Sidama
Mote: King, exercised political and administrative authority in consultation with the council of elders (Songo).
Songo: Council of elders, raised agenda for discussion and submitted decisions to the Mote.
Woma: Cultural and ritual leader, peacemaker, handled cultural matters, performed rituals.
Bushe and Maldea: Two major clans, subdivided into sub-clans.
Luwa: Age cycles, initiation rites, maintaining authority roles.
Gercho and Cimessiccho: Terms for the elderly.
Halal: Moral standard reflecting truth, avoiding crime, integrity.
Olla: Village, family unit, murricha (elder) has a leadership role.
Gerontocracy: Dominated the communal network.
Gosa: Subtribes, ruled independently by their king (supreme judge) and the woma.
Woma-Songo: Assembly of subtribal kings or judges.
Sera: Ruling truth, halale proclaimed by the elders is hard to challenge and is often a base for “forced” consensus.
Gare-Songo: Council of the mote, dealt with matters closer to daily life.
Haracha: Cluster of agnatic units, villages sharing sera, songo (assemblies) headed by the muriccha.
Gedeo
Location: Highlands east of Lake Abaya.
Tradition: Descendants of Derasso, close relationship with neighboring Oromo groups.
Haro Walabu: Believed to be the homeland of the Gedeo.
Seven Clans:
Ballee: Traditional governance system, based on an age system, similarities with the Gadaa system of the neighboring Gujji Oromo.
Yaa: General council, supreme authority, elected all ballee officials.
Abba Gadaa: Gave political, social, and ritual leadership.
Roga: Administered each of the three Gedeo territorial units.
Konso
Location: Hilly area in southwest Ethiopia.
Language: East Highland Cushitic language.
Economy: Mixed agriculture (sorghum, millet, shelgeda), terraced hillsides.
Decentralized Political Structure: Shared authority between poqalla (priest), council of elders, and tella (generation set).
Paletas: Walled villages, ruled by a council of elders (hayyota) selected through direct participation of male members, rotated every eighteen years.
Tselta: Clan or lineage group and generation set, fixed cycle of years, informing the responsibilities expected of each age group.
Exogamous Clans: Toqmaleta, Elayta, Saudata, Pasanta, Kertita, Ishalayta, Mahaleta, Tikisayta and Argamyta.
Burji
Clans: Belong to one of two moieties named Dashcha and Jiremalecha.
Traditional Administration: Elective system known as basha (shumet).
Officials: Woma, kings, dayna, and masha.
Two Types of Woma: Hereditary spiritual woma (gan) and elective political elite or woma.
Gan: saganaka gan (rainmaker) and banbalinka gan (controls wars, crop pests, disease).
Succession: Eldest son succeeded his deceased woma's father.
Unit Summary
"Solomonic dynasty" replaced the Zagwe rule in 1270, using the legend of Queen Sheba and King Solomon.
Muslim sultanates were established along long-distance trading routes.
Series of conflicts between the Christian, Muslim and other states.
States and peoples with indeginous religions in central and southern parts of the region, Damot, Kafa, Ennarya, Bizamo, Walaita, Yem, Kambata, the Gurage chiefdoms, and the Agaw kingdom of Gojjam.
People move from place to place due to pull and push factors.
Gadaa system: Divided into age groups, an egalitarian system led by an assembly or chaffe of the ruling Gadaa class.
The major outcomes of population movements were religious, ethnic and linguistic interactions and intermingling of peoples.
Review Questions
Part I: True or False
True
False
True
False
True
False
True
Part II: Multiple Choice
C
D
B
D
D
B
D
Matching
C
E
D
B
F
A