C-SPAN offers exam prep content that can be found online by searching "cram for the exam" along with the relevant year (e.g., 2025).
The C-SPAN program is a call-in show where students can ask questions and give shout-outs to teachers.
Listening to the questions of other students can be validating.
Past years' exam prep content is available for review.
Units 4 and 5: Political Ideologies & Linkage Institutions
Political ideologies and linkage institutions are intertwined.
Unit Four: Political Ideologies. Begins with Political Socialization.
Political Spectrum: People fall across the political spectrum; conservative Democrats and liberal Republicans exist.
Liberal Republicans: In this context, refers to Republicans who hold more modern views but are not far-left.
Unit Five: Linkage Institutions. Now that one has developed an ideology. People tend to lean towards liberal or conservative ideas depending on the context.
Political parties are made up of groups with diverse views. Parties aim to gather a coalition of voters with like-minded views.
Political parties help organize the government. Positions like majority/minority leaders and Speaker of the House align with political parties.
Political parties not only get people elected but also facilitate a coalition in the legislature to pass legislation.
Liberals most likely vote Democrat, while conservatives most likely vote Republican. However, speaking in generalizations is important, as there are exceptions.
Individuals may hold a mix of conservative and liberal views, influencing their party affiliation.
Need to be aware of the issues that Liberal and Conservatives stand for.
Political parties represent constituencies. A Democrat from Los Angeles represents the interests of that specific area.
Federalist Papers advocate for a large republic to manage diverse viewpoints.
DNC: Democratic National Committee (the Democratic Party).
RNC: Republican National Committee.
GOP: Grand Old Party (the Republican Party).
Political parties conduct "get out the vote" (GOTV) drives.
Parties offer machinery (posters, etc.) to support candidates.
Third-party candidates struggle due to a lack of machinery.
Political parties recruit and nominate candidates and educate voters through party platforms.
For a comprehensive understanding of party platforms, refer to the DNC and RNC websites.
Social media and television often focus on hot-button issues rather than the full scope of party platforms.
Voting for a party's candidate means supporting the entire platform and coalition.
Voting and Suffrage
Voting amendments primarily place restrictions on the power of states.
States agreed to these restrictions, which expanded the right to suffrage. It gives people the franchise of voting.
States run elections and have different requirements, which can be a barrier to voting.
Voter ID rules and the fact that voting primarily falls on a Tuesday can be a barrier, and restriction on one's ability to vote.
Primaries narrow down candidates.
Closed primaries: Voters must identify with a political party before voting. This is a voting barrier.
Caucuses are group meetings to vote for a candidate.
Open primaries may attract more extreme voters than closed primaries.
Caucuses involve deeply committed party members; participants must be registered Republicans or Democrats.
When analyzing scenarios about who is most likely to vote: a higher level of education is the best indicator.
Need to know demographic data about who votes Democratic and Republican.
Linkage Institutions
Linkage institutions connect people to politics: political parties, interest groups, and the media.
Interest groups are issue advocacy groups that advocate for their interests. Can include corporate interests (pharmaceutical companies, car industries, big tobacco, big pharma) and labor unions groups.
Interest groups also lobby, use litigation, and mobilize mass support to advocate for their interests.
Interest groups research and lobby with information to advocate for legislation or better bureaucratic rules.
Litigation
Litigants: Parties involved in a court case.
Non-litigants: Parties not directly involved but interested in the outcome.
Amicus curiae brief: A persuasive essay submitted to the Supreme Court by a non-litigant.
Solicitor General: Argues on behalf of the U.S. government when it is a litigant.
The President can also voice his opinion to the Supreme Court, like with amicus.
NAACP financed Brown v. Board of Education.
The civil rights movement lobbied Congress, used litigation, and mass mobilization.
Civil disobedience may be needed to change laws.
Mass mobilization and media coverage can influence legislation.
Campaign Finance
Interest groups cannot directly give money to a candidate. They lack direct access to hard money contributors.
Citizens can donate directly to candidate, there are limitations.
Issue based advocacy groups, or independent expenditures, cannot give money directly to a candidate. They can solely focus on the issue, but cannot say "vote for, vote against, or oppose".
Issue-based ads can mention candidates but must focus on issues.
Corporations and unions can give money to ads to advocate for cases.
Citizens United v. FEC is a First Amendment case related to freedom of speech.
A 501(c)(4) organization does not have to disclose its donors.
It is feared that corporations decide elections, and people were nervous about the impact of issue based ads.
Arguments for and against Citizens United: Madison says it will even out.
Iron Triangle
The Iron Triangle involves congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups.
Congressional committees oversee how a bill is administered and enforced.
The bureaucracy (agencies) enforces laws and creates administrative/regulatory law.
TSA is an example of how regulatory agencies enforce law.
Bureaucrats have discretionary authority to decide how to enforce laws.
If someone does not like how laws are enforced, someone with the authority can change those policies.
Interest groups lobby Congress and bureaucratic agencies by providing resources and information.
Role of the Media
The media is the gatekeeper of information.
The media can highlight an issue that was not previously known.
Freedom of the press is protected by the Constitution and stare decisis (New York Times v. United States).
The media provides entertainment value but has been used to highlight non-pertinent issues.
Media coverage affects perceptions, and modern media allows individuals to seek information of their choosing. This can lead to echo chambers.
The media has 24 hours of news to make and has to make stuff up.
The media plays a large role in how politics are portrayed and in how policy is exhibited.