Work Measurement: Definition, Evolution, Scope, Techniques, and Time Study Procedure

Definition and Fundamentals of Work Measurement

• Definition by Kanawaty (1992:243): Work measurement is defined as "the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry out a task at a defined rate of working."
• Definition by Mital, Desai, and Mital (2017:4): Work measurement is "the application of techniques that help work study specialists to determine the time a qualified worker would take to complete a specified task at a defined speed or rate of working."
• Core Concepts and Key Elements (Kanawaty 1992; Unisa 2007:4; Sookdeo 2014:243):
  • Fair Time Allocation: The time established to complete work activities must be fair, representing the time required by an average worker to complete the task satisfactorily.
  • Qualified Worker Specification: Time standards must be allocated specifically for a qualified worker. A qualified worker is defined as an individual who possesses the necessary physical characteristics, knowledge, skills, and training required to carry out the specific task.
  • Defined Task Scope: The task being measured must be evaluated against a properly defined piece of work that features an explicitly stated starting point and finishing point.
  • Validity of Standard Time: Standard times are rendered invalid and unacceptable if any of these foundational elements (fairness, qualified worker specification, and defined task parameters) are ignored.

History and Chronological Evolution of Work Measurement

• 1881 – FW Taylor: Introduced stopwatch time study at the Midvale Steel Company in Philadelphia (Blake & Moseley 2011:346-347).
• 1911 – FW Taylor: Recognized as the father of 'scientific management' (Salvino 2016:70).
• 1912 – Frank B. and Lillian M. Gilbreth: Established the foundation for the first Predetermined Motion Time System (PMTS) to develop elemental time data for groups of human motions (Džubáková & Kopták 2017:110).
• 1920 – Frank B. and Lillian M. Gilbreth: Divided individual fundamental human motions into basic micro-elements known as 'therbligs' (Freivalds & Niebel 2014; Faber et al. 2019:351).
• 1934 – LHC Tippet: Developed the work sampling technique, which utilizes random statistical observations to estimate the proportion of total time a worker dedicates to performing various specific tasks (Ochoa, Murcia, Fuciños & Domínguez 2017:11).
• 1948–1950 – Maynard, Stegemerten, and Schwab: Developed Methods-Time Measurement (MTM). MTM was the pioneer system in a series of predetermined motion time systems where time estimates are not determined individually on-site, but derived from established industry standards (Džubáková & Kopták 2017:110).

Nature, Scope, Objectives, and Value of Work Measurement

• The Nature of Work Measurement:
  • Work measurement can only be executed following the completion of a method study investigation.
  • A work study specialist must first perform a method study to eliminate or simplify unnecessary material and worker movements, reducing overall work prior to initiating work measurement.
• The Scope of Work Measurement:
  • Work measurement is intrinsically linked to method study, actively identifying workplace deficiencies and highlighting corrective measures (Unisa 2007:4; Sookdeo 2014:251).
  • Establishing Time Standards for Performance Control: Time standards established for a qualified worker or material processing volume must be submitted for formal approval to the concerned foreman, supervisor, worker, and management team.
  • Correction of Operational Irregularities: Performance control via work measurement identifies and corrects issues such as poor planning, scarcity of materials, supervisory planning failures, material shortages, frequent delays, repetitive and tiresome work, negative worker/group attitudes, incompetent workers, and lack of proper training.
  • Workforce Planning and Staffing Requirements: Accurate time standards determine the precise number of workers required for a specific duration, necessary skill sets, training requirements, and definitive task descriptions.
  • Costing and Financial Protection: Helps management determine accurate direct costs for labour, materials, machinery, and equipment prior to product storage, ensuring products are not sold below actual production costs.
  • Scheduling and Morale Optimization: Facilitates precise operational scheduling by determining machine and operator workloads, exact equipment and personnel requirements for target outputs, optimal manufacturing methods, and realistic completion dates for customer orders, while boosting employee morale through clear objectives.
  • Cross-Functional Alignment (Operations, Marketing, and Purchasing):
    • Operations Manager: Requires defined, consistent time standards to maximize workforce, machine, and equipment utilization efficiency.
    • Marketing Manager: Uses precise operational time estimates to commit to realistic delivery schedules for clients.
    • Purchaser / Customer: Benefits from predictable order fulfillment timelines and pricing.
  • Performance Monitoring and Process Improvement: Enables management to systematically compare actual performance against standard times, detect operational malfunctions, and execute continuous process improvements.
  • Strategic Planning Areas: Supports organizational planning across improved work methods, plant capacity optimization, output targets, financial budgeting, and work content quantification.
  • Financial Incentive Systems: Provides equitable standard baselines for financial incentive schemes, rewarding workers with additional remuneration when performance exceeds set standard times.
  • Training Role Requirements: Trainers (work study specialists or qualified designated personnel) must possess specialized knowledge to effectively instruct workers in new or improved work methods.
• Objectives of Work Measurement:
  • To determine the exact quantity and quality of work content.
  • To establish the precise duration required for a qualified worker to complete a given task.
  • To enhance organizational productivity, which represents the comprehensive output-to-input ratio encompassing both quality and quantity dimensions (Oeij et al. 2012:97).
• Value of Work Measurement:
  • Equips management with direct and indirect analytical techniques to measure task execution time and optimize temporal efficiency.
  • Establishes benchmark standard times for evaluating worker, operator, and machine performance.
  • Pinpoints ineffective time within operational processes to facilitate targeted corrective actions.

Work Measurement Techniques and Procedural Framework

• Core Purpose of Work Measurement Techniques: To systematically identify and eliminate ineffective operational time associated with jobs (More et al. 2019:1415).
• Classification of Techniques (Unisa 2007:29):
  • Direct Work Measurement Techniques: Applied directly to determine the work content of existing operational methods through physical observation of an operator/worker performing tasks at the workplace.
    • Time Study: A direct technique for recording the times of performing specific jobs or job elements under specified conditions, analyzing data to determine the time necessary for an operator to carry out the task at a defined rate of performance (Kanawaty 1995). Alternatively defined as recording the time required for a qualified/trained worker to perform a specific task using proper standard operating procedures under stated environmental conditions at a defined pace (Munyai, Mbonyane & Mbohwa 2018:215-220).
    • Activity / Work Sampling: A direct technique involving continuous random observations of activities performed by employees, machines, or processes to determine the percentage occurrence of specific activities using statistical sampling (Unisa 2007:37).
  • Indirect Work Measurement Techniques: Applied to evaluate both existing and planned methods without requiring direct physical observation of the task, using existing standard data or synthetic times.
    • Predetermined Motion Time Systems (PMTS): An indirect technique where predetermined times established for basic human motions (categorized by motion type and physical condition) are synthesized to establish job time at a defined performance level (Kanawaty 1995).
    • Analytical Estimating: An indirect technique developed from estimating, where times required for job elements at a defined performance level are calculated partly from practical experience/knowledge of elements and partly from synthetic data (Currie 1977:138).
    • Synthesis: An indirect technique for building up total job time or partial job time at a defined performance level by totaling element times previously derived from prior time studies or synthetic data sources (Currie 1977:138).
    • Comparative Estimating: An indirect estimation technique using comparative historical benchmarks to derive time values for work elements.
• Six-Step Work Measurement Procedure:
  • Step 1: Selection of the job or work to be studied.
  • Step 2: Recording of all relevant facts and data.
  • Step 3: Critical examination of the recorded facts.
  • Step 4: Measurement of the work content.
  • Step 5: Determination of the standard time for the operation (incorporating stopwatch measurements and applicable allowances).
  • Step 6: Explicit definition of the specific method of operation for which the time standard has been allocated.

Time Study Investigation Methodology and Documentation Tools

• Criteria for Investigation Accuracy (Unisa 2007:64):
  • Method Specification: The work method must be fully defined with clear starting and ending points, specifying all materials, machinery, equipment, and environmental working conditions.
  • Worker Communication: The worker under observation must be fully informed about the study and its explicit goals.
  • Repetitive Execution: The job must be performed repetitively until the required statistical level of timing accuracy is achieved.
  • Performance Rating: The worker's performance pace must be rated accurately against a satisfactory standard.
  • Allowance Calculations: Accurate calculations must be made for relaxation allowances, process allowances, and other granted concessions.
• Essential Time Study Equipment:
  • Stopwatch (mechanical flyback or electronic digital).
  • Study board / clipboard.
  • Standardized time study documentation sheets.
  • Measuring tape and ruler.
  • Calculator and computer for numerical analysis.
• Stopwatch Operational Mechanics:
  • Flyback / Mechanical Stopwatch: Allows immediate resetting and restarting of the timing mechanism during ongoing recording (BSI 1959; Rickards et al. 1995).
    • Button A (Push Button): Operated by finger to return hands instantly to zero position.
    • Button B (Setup Button): Operated by thumb to engage long and short timing hands.
    • Button C (Stop Button): Operated to stop the motion of two long hands.
  • Electronic / Digital Stopwatch: Employs a quartz clock movement to provide superior precision; follows the same operational button procedures as mechanical stopwatches.
• Time Study Board Specifications (Unisa 2007:70-71):
  • Constructed from smooth, rigid laminated wood or durable plastic.
  • Must exceed the dimensions of the largest observation sheet used (minimum A4 size).
  • Fitted with a dedicated stopwatch clamp so the analyst's non-writing hand holds the board and watch simultaneously, keeping the writing hand completely free.
  • Handedness Alignment: Clamped on the left side for right-handed analysts; clamped on the right side for left-handed analysts.
• Standard Time Study Documentation Sheets:
  • Element Breakdown Sheet (Unisa 2007:73): Records precise operational element breakdowns and their exact breakpoints.
    • Header Information: Department, division, study number, sheet number, date, duration, observer name, worker name, start time, finish time, task description, percentage error.
    • Tabular Columns: Element Number, Element Breakdown with Breakpoints.
  • Time Study Observation Sheet (Unisa 2007:109; Munyai et al. 2018:217): Used to record raw continuous timing data and performance ratings to derive individual basic times across work cycles.
    • Header Information: Standard study identification details identical to breakdown sheet.
    • Tabular Columns: Element Number, Performance Rating / Observed Rating (OR), Observed Time (OT), Ineffective Time (IT), Basic Time (BT), Total Basic Time (TBT).
  • Time Study Analysis Sheet (Unisa 2007:73): Analyzes raw timing observations across repeated cycles to establish representative average basic times for each element.
    • Header Information: Department, division, study number, observer, worker, date, start time, finish time, total study time, recorded time, elapsed time, error percentage, Time Elapsed Before Study (TEBS), Time Elapsed After Study (TEAS).
    • Tabular Structure: Horizontal columns for Element Numbers (No. 1 through No. 10), vertical rows for Cycle Numbers (1 through 10), Total Basic Time, Number of Observations, and Average Basic Time per element.
  • Time Study Summary Sheet (Unisa 2007:170): Synthesizes basic element times and applies necessary operational allowances to calculate final standard times.
    • Header Information: Identical header details to Analysis Sheet.
    • Tabular Structure: Columns for Element Number, Element Description, Average Basic Time, Frequency of Occurrence, Selected Basic Time (SBT) per measurement, Relaxation Allowance Percentage (RA %), Other Allowances, Actual Time (AT), Total Actual Time, Contingency Allowance, and final Standard Time.

Time Conversion Principles and Mathematical Calculations

• Central Unit Principle: The minute serves as the indispensable central nexus for all time study conversions. Direct conversion between non-minute units (e.g., converting seconds directly to centiminutes or hours directly to centiminutes) is mathematically invalid; all transformations must transition through minutes.
• Fundamental Unit Rules:
  • Converting smaller units to larger units (e.g., centiminutes to minutes, or seconds to minutes): Divide by the conversion factor ($100$ for centiminutes, $60$ for seconds).
  • Converting larger units to smaller units (e.g., minutes to centiminutes, or minutes to seconds): Multiply by the conversion factor ($100$ for centiminutes, $60$ for seconds).
• Mathematical Conversion Formulas:
  • Seconds to Minutes:$\text{Minutes} = \frac{\text{Seconds}}{60}$
  • Centiminutes to Minutes:$\text{Minutes} = \frac{\text{Centiminutes}}{100}$
  • Minutes to Centiminutes:$\text{Centiminutes} = \text{Minutes} \times 100$
  • Minutes to Seconds:$\text{Seconds} = \text{Minutes} \times 60$
• Step-by-Step Conversion Problem 1: Converting $1\text{ minute } 25\text{ seconds}$ to Minutes:
  • Step 1 (Formulate Equation):$1\text{ minute } 25\text{ seconds} = X\,\text{minutes}$
  • Step 2 (Convert Seconds Component to Minutes): Retain the whole $1\text{ minute}$ and convert $25\text{ seconds}$ by dividing by $60$:         $\text{Minutes} = \frac{25}{60} = 0.416667\,\text{minutes}$
  • Step 3 (Sum Total Minutes): Add the converted fractional minute to the retained whole minute:         $\text{Total Minutes} = 1 + 0.416667 = 1.416667\,\text{minutes}$
• Step-by-Step Conversion Problem 2: Converting $1.416667\text{ minutes}$ to Centiminutes:
  • Calculation (Larger to Smaller): Multiply minutes by $100$:         $\text{Centiminutes} = 1.416667 \times 100 = 141.667\,\text{centiminutes}$
• Step-by-Step Conversion Problem 3: Converting $141.667\text{ centiminutes}$ back to Minutes:
  • Calculation (Smaller to Larger): Divide centiminutes by $100$:         $\text{Minutes} = \frac{141.667}{100} = 1.416667\,\text{minutes}$

Advanced Time Study Systems and Video Analytics

• Shift to Digital Technologies: Modern work study practices have evolved beyond manual stopwatches, integrating specialized computer software, digital video recordings, and mobile application technology on smartphones and microcomputers to increase data accuracy and speed.
• Timer Pro Professional Software (Szewczyk and Sowa 2017:1-3):
  • Allows analysts to pause digital video footage at precise instances, perform frame-by-frame rewinds infinitely, and pinpoint exact start/stop execution moments for work elements.
  • Integrates natively with Microsoft Excel to streamline data analysis, eliminate paper documentation, decrease operational administrative costs, and improve overall productivity.
• Benefits of Advanced Digital Recording Devices (Sookdeo 2014:2016-2018):
  • Configured for cost-effective execution of comprehensive time studies and activity sampling.
  • Simplifies field data collection while eliminating human measurement errors.
  • Provides instant real-time access to complete statistical study metrics and analytical summary reporting.
  • Eliminates labor-intensive, time-consuming manual timing tasks associated with traditional stopwatches.