Methods of Enquiry in Psychology Study Notes

Goals of Psychological Enquiry

Psychological enquiry, like any scientific research, is guided by five major goals: description, prediction, explanation, control of behaviour, and the application of knowledge.

• Description: The primary goal is to describe a behaviour or phenomenon as accurately as possible. This involves distinguishing a specific behaviour from others. For example, in studying "study habits," the researcher must define and record specific acts like regular class attendance, timely submission of assignments, and daily revision. Minute descriptions are required to ensure the researcher's definition of the subject is clear.

• Prediction: By understanding and describing behaviour accurately, researchers can identify relationships between behaviors and other events. This allows for forecasting the occurrence of a behaviour under specific conditions within a certain margin of error. For example, if a study establishes a positive relationship between study time and academic achievement, one can predict that a child who spends more time studying will likely earn better marks. The accuracy of prediction increases with the number of persons observed.

• Explanation: This goal focuses on identifying the causal factors or determinants of behaviour. Psychologists seek to understand the conditions under which a behaviour occurs or does not occur. This involves establishing cause-effect relationships between variables or events, identifying antecedent conditions (the conditions that led to the behavior).

• Control: Once the causes of a behaviour are explained, psychologists can control it by altering its antecedent conditions. Control involves three actions: making a behaviour happen, reducing it, or enhancing it. For example, psychological therapy aims to bring about change in a person's behavior through treatment. A student might increase or decrease study hours depending on the desired outcome.

• Application: The final goal is to use research to bring about positive changes in people's lives and solve problems in various settings. This includes improving quality of life through applications like yoga and meditation to reduce stress. Scientific enquiry also serves to develop new theories and constructs which drive further research.

Steps in Conducting Scientific Research

Science is defined more by its method (how it investigates) than by its subject (what it investigates). The scientific method is objective (independent researchers reach the same conclusion), systematic (follows specific steps), and testable.

1. Conceptualising a Problem: The researcher selects a topic, narrows the focus, and develops specific research questions or problems based on past research, observations, and personal experiences.

   • Problems can be related to self-understanding, understanding others, group influences, group behaviour, or organizational levels.

   • The researcher develops a hypothesis, which is a tentative answer to the problem (e.g., "Higher amounts of time viewing television violence leads to higher aggression").

2. Collecting Data: This requires a research design or blueprint. Decisions must be made regarding:

   • Participants: Who will be studied (children, adolescents, patients, etc.).

   • Methods: Observation, experimental, correlational, or case study.

   • Tools: Interview schedules, questionnaires, observation schedules, etc.

   • Procedure: How the tools will be administered (individually or in groups).

3. Drawing Conclusions: The data is analysed using statistical procedures and graphical representations (pie charts, bar diagrams, etc.) to verify the hypothesis.

4. Revising Research Conclusions: If conclusions support the hypothesis, the theory is confirmed. If not, the researcher revises the hypothesis/theory and tests it again. Research is a continuous process.

Alternative Paradigms of Research

Psychology has historically followed the positivist model used in physical sciences (physics, chemistry, biology), assuming human behaviour is predictable, caused by forces, and measurable. This paradigm focused primarily on overt (observable) behaviour for much of the $20^{th}$ century.

In recent years, the interpretive paradigm has emerged, which emphasizes understanding over prediction. It argues that human behavior is complex and variable, requiring a focus on how humans give meaning to events and interpret reality based on context. For example, in unique contexts like surviving a tsunami or chronic illness, objective measurement is neither possible nor desirable. The goal of this paradigm is to explore human experience without disturbing its natural flow.

Nature of Psychological Data

Psychological data (plural of datum) relate to individuals' covert/overt behavior, subjective experiences, and mental processes. Data are not independent entities; they are located within a context (physical, social, and temporal) and tied to the method used for collection.

• Demographic Information: Includes name, age, gender, birth order, education, occupation, marital status, religion, caste, and income.

• Physical Information: Includes ecological conditions, housing conditions, room size, and mode of transportation.

• Physiological Data: Includes height, weight, heart rate, fatigue levels, Galvanic Skin Resistance (GSR), Electro-encephalograph (EEG), blood oxygen, reaction time, and sleep patterns.

• Psychological Information: Includes intelligence, personality, interests, values, creativity, emotions, motivation, and subjective experiences (dreams, hallucinations).

Observational Method

Observation is a scientific tool involving selection, recording, and analysis of behavior.

• Selection: Psychologists select specific behaviors rather than observing everything.

• Recording: Uses tallies, detailed notes, symbols, photographs, or video recording.

• Analysis: Deriving meaning from recorded data.

Types of Observation:

• Naturalistic vs. Controlled: Naturalistic occurs in real-life settings (schools, hospitals) without manipulation. Controlled occurs in laboratory settings where factors are manipulated.

• Non-Participant vs. Participant: In non-participant observation, the researcher observes from a distance (e.g., via camera). In participant observation, the researcher becomes part of the group to establish rapport, though this can be labor-intensive and subject to observer bias.

Experimental Method

Experiments establish cause-effect relationships in controlled settings. One factor (cause) is manipulated to see its effect on another factor while keeping other variables constant.

• Variable: Any stimulus or event that varies and can be measured. Attributes of objects (e.g., size, color) are variables, but the objects themselves are not.

• Independent Variable (IV): The variable manipulated or altered by the researcher to see its effect.

• Dependent Variable (DV): The phenomenon the researcher wants to explain; the behavior that changes due to the manipulation of the IV.

• Extraneous/Relevant Variables: Variables other than the IV that might influence the DV and need to be controlled. Types include:

  • Organismic variables: Anxiety, intelligence, personality.

  • Situational variables: Noise, temperature, humidity.

  • Sequential variables: Experimental fatigue or practice effects from being tested in several conditions.

Groups in Experiments:

• Experimental Group: Members are exposed to the independent variable manipulation.

• Control Group: A comparison group treated identically to the experimental group expect the manipulated variable is absent.

Control Techniques:

• Elimination: Removing extraneous variables (e.g., sound-proof rooms).

• Constancy: Holding factors like time or instructions same for all subjects.

• Matching: Equating groups on relevant variables (e.g., age or socio-economic status).

• Counter-balancing: Changing the order of tasks to minimize sequence effects.

• Random Assignment: Ensuring every participant has an equal chance of being in any group.

Box 2.1: Latane and Darley (1970) Experiment:

• Setup: Students in a waiting room encountered smoke from a vent.

• Participants: Some were alone, some with two others (naive), some with two confederates instructed to do nothing.

• Results: $75\%$ of those alone reported the smoke. Only $38\%$ in groups of three reported it. Only $10\%$ reported it when with confederates who did nothing.

Field Experiments and Quasi Experiments

• Field Experiments: Conducted in natural settings (e.g., a school). They have high generalisability but less control over variables.

• Quasi Experiments: Used when variables cannot be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons (e.g., studying the effect of an earthquake). The independent variable is "selected" rather than "manipulated." Groups are naturally occurring.

Correlational Research

Correlational research determines the relationship between two variables for prediction without manipulation. The strength and direction are represented by the Correlation Coefficient, ranging from $+1.0$ to $-1.0$.

• Positive Correlation: As $X$ increases, $Y$ increases (e.g., study time and achievement). Strongest near $+1.0$.

• Negative Correlation: As $X$ increases, $Y$ decreases (e.g., study time and time spent on other activities). Ranges between $0$ and $-1.0$.

• Zero Correlation: No significant relationship exists (e.g., coefficients like $-.02$ or $+.03$).

Survey Research

Surveys study opinions, attitudes, and social facts using various techniques.

• Personal Interviews: Purposeful activity to get facts and opinions.

  • Structured: Uses a set interview schedule with close-ended questions (specified responses).

  • Unstructured: Flexible wording and sequence; uses open-ended questions.

  • Formats: Individual to Individual, Individual to Group (Focus Group Discussion), Group to Individual (Job interview), Group to Group.

• Questionnaires: Low-cost self-report method with a predetermined set of questions.

  • Rating Scales: Responses on scales (e.g., $5$-point: Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree).

  • Mailed Questionnaires: Suffer from poor response rates.

• Telephone Surveys: Quick but often face uncooperativeness or biased sampling.

Box 2.2: Outlook Saptahik Survey (2004):

• Sample: $817$ persons in $8$ cities, age $25$-$55$.

• Results: $47\%$ extremely happy; $80\%$ said money can't buy happiness; peak happiness caused by peace of mind ($52\%$) and health ($50\%$).

Psychological Testing

A psychological test is a standardised and objective instrument used to assess individual standing on mental or behavioural characteristics.

• Objectivity: Accuracy where multiple researchers arrive at the same values.

• Standardisation: Establishing norms and fixed administration procedures.

• Reliability: Consistency of scores.

  • Test-retest: Stability over time.

  • Split-half: Internal consistency between two halves of the test.

• Validity: Does the test measure what it claims to measure?

• Norms: Average performance standards based on age, sex, etc.

Classification of Tests:

• Language: Verbal (requires literacy), Non-verbal (symbols/pictures), and Performance (movement of objects).

• Administration: Individual (face-to-face, time-consuming) vs. Group (mass administration, less expensive).

• Difficulty/Time: Speed tests (time limit, same difficulty items) vs. Power tests (no time limit, increasing difficulty items).

Case Study

In-depth study of a particular case (individual, group, institution, or event). It employs multiple methods like interviews and psychological tests to provide a rich narrative of unique cases.

• Examples: Freud’s psychoanalytic theory; Piaget’s cognitive development theory; Minturn and Hitchcock’s study of Rajputs in Khalapur; S. Anandalakshmy’s study of Varanasi weavers.

Analysis of Data

1. Quantitative Method: Converts psychological attributes into numbers. Uses statistical methods like central tendency (mean, median, mode), variability (range, standard deviation), and correlation coefficients to compare scores.

2. Qualitative Method: Used for complex human experiences (e.g., Narrative Analysis). Data is descriptive (field notes, photographs, recordings). Content Analysis is used to find thematic categories. These methods are complementary to quantitative methods.

Limitations of Psychological Enquiry

1. Lack of True Zero Point: In psychology, there is no absolute zero (e.g., nobody has zero intelligence). Scores are relative and arbitrary.

2. Relative Nature of Tools: Tests are context-bound. A test for urban students may not work for tribal students. Western tests often need adaptation for the Indian context.

3. Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative Data: Interpretations vary by researcher. Validity is improved by using multiple investigators and involve respondents in meaning-making.

Ethical Issues

Researchers must follow moral principles to protect participants:

1. Voluntary Participation: Participants must have the freedom to choose to join or withdraw without penalty.

2. Informed Consent: Participants must be told what will happen during the study before it starts. This is critical if deception or noxious stimuli (e.g., electric shocks) are used.

3. Debriefing: If deception was used, the true nature of the study must be explained afterward to ensure participants leave in the same mental/physical state they entered.

4. Sharing Results: Researchers have a moral duty to share findings with participants to fulfill expectations and gain further insights.

5. Confidentiality: Identitites must be protected. Information is used for research only. Identities are often replaced with code numbers.

Questions & Discussion

Review Questions:

1. What are the goals of scientific enquiry?

2. Describe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry.

3. Explain the nature of psychological data.

4. How do experimental and control groups differ? Explain with the help of an example.

5. A researcher is studying the relationship between speed of cycling and the presence of people. Formulate a relevant hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent variables.

6. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of experimental method as a method of enquiry.

7. Dr. Krishnan is going to observe and record children’s play behaviour at a nursery school without attempting to influence or control the behaviour. Which method of research is involved? Explain the process and discuss its merits and demerits.

8. Give two examples of the situations where survey method can be used. What are the limitations of this method?

9. Differentiate between an interview and a questionnaire.

10. Explain the characteristics of a standardised test.

11. Describe the limitations of psychological enquiry.

12. What are the ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a psychological enquiry?

Project Ideas:

• Survey of after-school activities of Class $V$ and Class $IX$ students ($10$ each) regarding time devoted to study, TV, etc.

• Study the effect of recitation on learning poetry using two groups of six-year-olds (one reading loudly for $15$ minutes, the other not).